A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 


Trial  of  full-size  Langley  Aerodrome,  8th  December,  1903. 

Langley  Memoir  on  Mechanical  Flight,  Smithsonian  Institution,  Washington. 

Frontispiece. 


A 

History  of  Aeronautics 

by 


E.  CHARLES  VIVIAN 


WITH  A  SECTION  ON  PROGRESS  IN 
AEROPLANE  DESIGN 

h 

LIEUT.-COL.  W.  LOCKWOOD  MARSH,  O.B.E. 


NEW  YORK 

HARCOURT,  BRACE  AND  COMPANY 
1921 


To 

MY  WITNESS 
OCT.  2 1ST  1919 
V. 


481742 


FOREWORD 

ALTHOUGH  successful  heavier-than-air  flight  is  less 
than  two  decades  old,  and  successful  dirigible  propulsion 
antedates  it  by  a  very  short  period,  the  mass  of  experi- 
ment and  accomplishment  renders  any  one-volume 
history  of  the  subject  a  matter  of  selection.  In  addition 
to  the  restrictions  imposed  by  space  limits,  the  material 
for  compilation  is  fragmentary,  and,  in  many  cases, 
scattered  through  periodical  and  other  publications. 
Hitherto,  there  has  been  no  attempt  at  furnishing  a 
detailed  account  of  how  the  aeroplane  and  the  dirigible 
of  to-day  came  to  being,  but  each  author  who  has  treated 
the  subject  has  devoted  his  attention  to  some  special 
phase  or  section.  The  principal  exception  to  this  rule 
— Hildebrandt — wrote  in  1906,  and  a  good  many  of 
his  statements  are  inaccurate,  especially  with  regard 
to  heavier-than-air  experiment. 

Such  statements  as  are  made  in  this  work  are,  where 
possible,  given  with  acknowledgment  to  the  authorities 
on  which  they  rest.  Further  acknowledgment  is  due 
to  Lieut.-Col.  Lockwood  Marsh,  not  only  for  the 
section  on  aeroplane  development  which  he  has  con- 
tributed to  the  work,  but  also  for  his  kindly  assistance 
and  advice  in  connection  with  the  section  on  aerostation. 
The  author's  thanks  are  also  due  to  the  Royal  Aero- 
nautical Society  for  free  access  to  its  valuable  library 
of  aeronautical  literature,  and  to  Mr  A.  Vincent  Clarke 

vii 


FOREWORD 

for  permission  to  make  use  of  his  notes  on  the  develop- 
ment of  the  aero  engine. 

In  this  work  is  no  claim  to  originality — it  has  been 
a  matter  mainly  of  compilation,  and  some  stories,  notably 
those  of  the  Wright  Brothers  and  of  Santos  Dumont, 
are  better  told  in  the  words  of  the  men  themselves  than 
any  third  party  could  tell  them.  The  author  claims, 
however,  that  this  is  the  first  attempt  at  recording  the 
facts  of  development  and  stating,  as  fully  as  is  possible 
in  the  compass  of  a  single  volume,  how  flight  and 
aerostation  have  evolved.  The  time  for  a  critical  history 
of  the  subject  is  not  yet. 

In  the  matter  of  illustrations,  it  has  been  found  very 
difficult  to  secure  suitable  material.  Even  the  official 
series  of  photographs  of  aeroplanes  in  the  war  period 
is  curiously  incomplete,  and  the  methods  of  censorship 
during  that  period  prevented  any  complete  series  being 
privately  collected.  Omissions  in  this  respect  will 
probably  be  remedied  in  future  editions  of  the  work, 
as  fresh  material  is  constantly  being  located. 

E.  C.  V. 
October^  1920. 


viii 


CONTENTS 

/ 

PART  I — THE  EVOLUTION  OF  THE  AEROPLANE 

CHAP.  PAGB 

I.  THE    PERIOD    OF    LEGEND  3 

II.  EARLY    EXPERIMENTS  15 

III.  SIR    GEORGE    CAYLEY THOMAS    WALKER  43 

IV.  THE    MIDDLE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY  56 
V.  WENHAM,    LE    BRIS,    AND    SOME    OTHERS  7! 

VI.  THE    AGE    OF    THE    GIANTS  83 

VII.  LILIENTHAL    AND    PILCHER  95 

VIII.  AMERICAN    GLIDING    EXPERIMENTS  loy 

IX.  NOT    PROVEN  121 

X.  SAMUEL    PIERPOINT    LANGLEY  133 

XI.  THE    WRIGHT    BROTHERS  145 

XII.  THE    FIRST    YEARS    OF    CONQUEST  Ij6 

XIII.  FIRST    FLIERS    IN    ENGLAND  l88 

XIV.  RHEIMS,    AND    AFTER  199 

XV.  THE    CHANNEL    CROSSING  211 

XVI.  LONDON    TO    MANCHESTER  21 7 

XVII.  A    SUMMARY TO    I  9!  I  221 

XVIII.  A    SUMMARY TO    1914  233 

XIX.  THE    WAR    PERIOD 1  246 

XX.  THE    WAR    PERIOD II  259 

XXI.  RECONSTRUCTION  264 

xxn.  1919-1920  270 


CONTENTS 
PART  II — 1903-1920:   PROGRESS  IN  DESIGN 


CHAP. 


I.       THE    BEGINNINGS  277 

II.       MULTIPLICITY    OF    IDEAS  289 

III.  PROGRESS    ON    STANDARDISED    LINES  296 

IV.  THE   WAR    PERIOD  306 

PART  III — AEROSTATICS 

I.       BEGINNINGS  317 

II.       THE    FIRST    DIRIGIBLES  331 

III.  SANTOS-DUMONT  342 

IV.  THE    MILITARY    DIRIGIBLE  348 
V.       BRITISH    AIRSHIP    DESIGN  359 

VI.       THE    AIRSHIP    COMMERCIALLY  372 

VII.       KITE    BALLOONS  37^ 

PART  IV — ENGINE  DEVELOPMENT 

I.       THE    VERTICAL    TYPE  383 

II.       THE    VEE    TYPE  404 

III.  THE    RADIAL    TYPE  417 

IV.  THE    ROTARY    TYPE  428 
V.       THE    HORIZONTALLY-OPPOSED    ENGINE  440 

VI.       THE    TWO-STROKE    CYCLE    ENGINE  447 

VII.       ENGINES    OF    THE    WAR    PERIOD  458 

APPENDICES  469 

A    SHORT    BIBLIOGRAPHY    OF    AERONAUTICS         504 


PART  I 
THE  EVOLUTION  OF  THE  AEROPLANE 


THE    PERIOD    OF    LEGEND 


THE  blending  of  fact  and  fancy  which  men  call  legend 
reached  its  fullest  and  richest  expression  in  the  golden 
age  of  Greece,  and  thus  it  is  to  Greek  mythology  that 
one  must  turn  for  the  best  form  of  any  legend  which 
foreshadows  history.  Yet  the  prevalence  of  legends 
regarding  flight,  existing  in  the  records  of  practically 
every  race,  shows  that  this  form  of  transit  was  a  dream 
of  many  peoples — man  always  wanted  to  fly,  and  imagined 
means  of  flight. 

In  this  age  of  steel,  a  very  great  part  of  the  inventive 
genius  of  man  has  gone  into  devices  intended  to 
facilitate  transport,  both  of  men  and  goods,  and  the 
growth  of  civilisation  is  in  reality  the  facilitation  of 
transit,  improvement  of  the  means  of  communication. 
He  was  a  genius  who  first  hoisted  a  sail  on  a  boat  and 
saved  the  labour  of  rowing;  equally,  he  who  first 
harnessed  ox  or  dog  or  horse  to  a  wheeled  vehicle  was 
a  genius — and  these  looked  up,  as  men  have  looked 
up  from  the  earliest  days  of  all,  seeing  that  the  birds 
had  solved  the  problem  of  transit  far  more  completely 
than  themselves.  So  it  must  have  appeared,  and  there 
is  no  age  in  history  in  which  some  dreamers  have  not 
dreamed  of  the  conquest  of  the  air;  if  the  caveman  had 
left  records,  these  would  without  doubt  have  showed 
that  he,  too,  dreamed  this  dream.  His  main  aim, 

3 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

probably,  was  self-preservation;  when  the  dinosaur 
looked  round  the  corner,  the  prehistoric  bird  got  out 
of  the  way  in  his  usual  manner,  and  prehistoric  man — 
such  of  him  as  succeeded  in  getting  out  of  the  way 
after  his  fashion — naturally  envied  the  bird,  and  con- 
cluded that  as  lord  of  creation  in  a  doubtful  sort  of  way 
he  ought  to  have  equal  facilities.  He  may  have  tried, 
like  Simon  the  Magician,  and  other  early  experimenters, 
to  improvise  those  facilities;  assuming  that  he  did, 
there  is  the  groundwork  of  much  of  the  older  legend 
with  regard  to  men  who  flew,  since,  when  history  began, 
legends  would  be  fashioned  out  of  attempts  and  even 
the  desire  to  fly,  these  being  compounded  of  some 
small  ingredient  of  truth  and  much  exaggeration  and 
addition. 

In  a  study  of  the  first  beginnings  of  the  art,  it  is 
worth  while  to  mention  even  the  earliest  of  the  legends 
and  traditions,  for  they  show  the  trend  of  men's  minds 
and  the  constancy  of  this  dream  that  has  become  reality 
in  the  twentieth  century.  In  one  of  the  oldest  records 
of  the  world,  the  Indian  classic  Mahabarata,  it  is  stated 
that  '  Krishna's  enemies  sought  the  aid  of  the  demons, 
who  built  an  aerial  chariot  with  sides  of  iron  and  clad 
with  wings.  The  chariot  was  driven  through  the  sky 
till  it  stood  over  Dwarakha,  where  Krishna's  followers 
dwelt,  and  from  there  it  hurled  down  upon  the  city 
missiles  that  destroyed  everything  on  which  they  fell.' 
Here  is  pure  fable,  not  legend,  but  still  a  curious  fore- 
cast of  twentieth  century  bombs  from  a  rigid  dirigible. 
It  is  to  be  noted  in  this  case,  as  in  many,  that  the  power 
to  fly  was  an  attribute  of  evil,  not  of  good — it  was  the 
demons  who  built  the  chariot,  even  as  at  Friedrichshavn. 
Mediaeval  legend,  in  nearly  every  case3  attributes  flight 

4 


THE  PERIOD   OF  LEGEND 

to  the  aid  of  evil  powers,  and  incites  well-disposed 
people  to  stick  to  the  solid  earth — though,  curiously 
enough,  the  pioneers  of  mediaeval  times  were  very 
largely  of  priestly  type,  as  witness  the  monk  of 
Malmesbury. 

The  legends  of  the  dawn  of  history,  however, 
distribute  the  power  of  flight  with  less  of  prejudice. 
Egyptian  sculpture  gives  the  figure  of  winged  men; 
the  British  Museum  has  made  the  winged  Assyrian 
bulls  familiar  to  many,  and  both  the  cuneiform  records 
of  Assyria  and  the  hieroglyphs  of  Egypt  record  flights 
that  in  reality  were  never  made.  The  desire  fathered 
the  story  then,  and  until  Clement  Ader  either  hopped 
with  his  Avion,  as  is  persisted  by  his  critics,  or  flew,  as 
is  claimed  by  his  friends. 

While  the  origin  of  many  legends  is  questionable, 
that  of  others  is  easy  enough  to  trace,  though  not  to 
prove.  Among  the  credulous  the  significance  of  the 
name  of  a  people  of  Asia  Minor,  the  Capnobates, 
4  those  who  travel  by  smoke,'  gave  rise  to  the  assertion 
that  Mongolfier  was  not  first  in  the  field — or  rather  in 
the  air — since  surely  this  people  must  have  been 
responsible  for  the  first  hot-air  balloons.  Far  less 
questionable  is  the  legend  of  Icarus,  for  here  it  is  possible 
to  trace  a  foundation  of  fact  in  the  story.  Such  a  tribe 
as  Daedalus  governed  could  have  had  hardly  any  know- 
ledge of  the  rudiments  of  science,  and  even  their  ruler, 
seeing  how  easy  it  is  for  birds  to  sustain  themselves  in 
the  air,  mig^t  be  excused  for  believing  that  he,  if  he 
fashioned  wings  for  himself,  could  use  them.  In  that 
belief,  let  it  be  assumed,  Daedalus  made  his  wings;  the 
boy,  Icarus,  learning  that  his  father  had  determined 
on  an  attempt  at  flight,  secured  the  wings  and  fastened 

5 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

them  to  his  own  shoulders.  A  cliff  seemed  the  likeliest 
place  for  a  '  take-off/  and  Icarus  leaped  from  the  cliff 
edge  only  to  find  that  the  possession  of  wings  was  not 
enough  to  assure  flight  to  a  human  being.  The  sea 
that  to  this  day  bears  his  name  witnesses  that  he  made 
the  attempt  and  perished  by  it. 

In  this  is  assumed  the  bald  story,  from  which  might 
grow  the  legend  of  a  wise  king  who  ruled  a  peaceful 
people — 'judged,  sitting  in  the  sun,'  as  Browning  has 
it,  and  fashioned  for  himself  wings  with  which  he  flew 
over  the  sea  and  where  he  would,  until  the  prince, 
Icarus,  desired  to  emulate  him.  Icarus,  fastening  the 
wings  to  his  shoulders  with  wax,  was  so  imprudent  as 
to  fly  too  near  the  sun,  when  the  wax  melted  and  he 
fell,  to  lie  mourned  of  water-nymphs  on  the  shores  of 
waters  thenceforth  Icarian.  Between  what  we  have 
assumed  to  be  the  base  of  fact,  and  the  legend  which 
has  been  invested  with  such  poetic  grace  in  Greek  story, 
there  is  no  more  than  a  century  or  so  of  re-telling  might 
give  to  any  event  among  a  people  so  simple  and  yet  so 
given  to  imagery. 

We  may  set  aside  as  pure  fable  the  stories  of  the 
winged  horse  of  Perseus,  and  the  flights  of  Hermes  as 
messenger  of  the  gods.  With  them  may  be  placed  the 
story  of  Empedocles,  who  failed  to  take  Etna  seriously 
enough,  and  found  himself  caught  by  an  eruption 
while  within  the  crater,  so  that,  flying  to  safety  in  soi.ie 
hurry,  he  left  behind  but  one  sandal  to  attest  that  he 
had  sought  refuge  in  space — in  all  probability,  if  he 
escaped  at  all,  he  flew,  but  not  in  the  sense  that  the 
aeronaut  understands  it.  But,  bearing  in  mind  the 
many  men  who  tried  to  fly  in  historic  times,  trie  legend 
of  Icarus  and  Daedalus,  in  spite  of  the  impossible  form 

6 


THE  PERIOD   OF  LEGEND 

in  which  it  is  presented,  may  rank  with  the  story  of  the 
Saracen  of  Constantinople,  or  with  that  of  Simon  the 
Magician.  A  simple  folk  would  naturally  idealise  the 
man  and  magnify  his  exploit,  as  they  magnified  the 
deeds  of  some  strong  man  to  make  the  legends  of 
Hercules,  and  there,  full-grown  from  a  mere  legend, 
is  the  first  record  of  a  pioneer  of  flying.  Such  a  theory 
is  not  nearly  so  fantastic  as  that  which  makes  the 
Capnobates,  on  the  strength  of  their  name,  the  inventors 
of  hot-air  balloons.  However  it  may  be,  both  in 
story  and  in  picture,  Icarus  and  his  less  conspicuous 
father  have  inspired  the  Caucasian  mind,  and  the  world 
is  the  richer  for  them. 

Of  the  unsupported  myths — unsupported,  that  is, 
by  even  a  shadow  of  probability — there  is  no  end. 
Although  Latin  legend  approaches  nearer  to  fact  than 
the  Greek  in  some  cases,  in  others  it  shows  a  disregard 
for  possibilities  which  renders  it  of  far  less  account. 
Thus  Diodorus  of  Sicily  relates  that  one  Abaris  travelled 
round  the  world  on  an  arrow  of  gold,  and  Cassiodorus 
and  Glycas  and  their  like  told  of  mechanical  birds  that 
flew  and  sang  and  even  laid  eggs.  More  credible  is 
the  story  of  Aulus  Gellius,  who  in  his  Attic  Nights  tells 
how  Archytas,  four  centuries  prior  to  the  opening  of 
the  Christian  era,  made  a  wooden  pigeon  that  actually 
flew  by  means  of  a  mechanism  of  balancing  weights 
and  the  breath  of  a  mysterious  spirit  hidden  within  it. 
There  may  yet  arise  one  credulous  enough  to  state 
that  the  mysterious  spirit  was  precursor  of  the  internal 
combustion  engine,  but,  however  that  may  be,  the 
pigeon  of  Archytas  almost  certainly  existed,  and  perhaps 
it  actually  glided  or  flew  for  short  distances — or  else 
Aulus  Gellius  was  an  utter  liar,  like  Cassiodorus  and 
H.A.  ,  7  B 


A  HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

his  fellows.  In  far  later  times  a  certain  John  Muller, 
better  known  as  Regiomontanus,  is  stated  to  have 
made  an  artificial  eagle  which  accompanied  Charles  V. 
on  his  entry  to  and  exit  from  Nuremberg,  flying  above 
the  royal  procession.  But,  since  Muller  died  in  1436 
and  Charles  was  born  in  1500,  Muller  may  be  ruled 
out  from  among  the  pioneers  of  mechanical  flight,  and 
it  may  be  concluded  that  the  historian  of  this  event  got 
slightly  mixed  in  his  dates. 

Thus  far,  we  have  but  indicated  how  one  may 
draw  from  the  richest  stores  from  which  the  Aryan 
mind  draws  inspiration,  the  Greek  and  Latin  mythologies 
and  poetic  adaptations  of  history.  The  existing  legends 
of  flight,  however,  are  not  thus  to  be  localised,  for 
with  two  possible  exceptions  they  belong  to  all  the  world 
and  to  every  civilisation,  however  primitive.  The 
two  exceptions  are  the  Aztec  and  the  Chinese;  regarding 
the  first  of  these,  the  Spanish  conquistadores  destroyed 
such  civilisation  as  existed  in  Tenochtitlan  so  thoroughly 
that,  if  legend  of  flight  was  among  the  Aztec  records, 
it  went  with  the  rest;  as  to  the  Chinese,  it  is  more  than 
passing  strange  that  they,  who  claim  to  have  known 
and  done  everything  while  the  first  of  history  was 
shaping,  even  to  antedating  the  discovery  of  gunpowder 
that  was  not  made  by  Roger  Bacon,  have  not  yet  set  up 
a  claim  to  successful  handling  of  a  monoplane  some 
four  thousand  years  ago,  or  at  least  to  the  patrol  of  the 
Gulf  of  Korea  and  the  Mongolian  frontier  by  a  fore- 
runner of  the  l  blimp.' 

The  Inca  civilisation  of  Peru  yields  up  a  myth 
akin  to  that  of  Icarus,  which  tells  how  the  chieftain 
Ayar  Utso  grew  wings  and  visited  the  sun — it  was 
from  the  sun,  too,  that  the  founders  of  the  Peruvian 

8 


THE  PERIOD   OF  LEGEND 

Inca  dynasty,  Manco  Capac  and  his  wife  Mama  Huella 
Capac,  flew  to  earth  near  Lake  Titicaca,  to  make  the 
only  successful  experiment  in  pure  tyranny  that  the 
world  has  ever  witnessed.  Teutonic  legend  gives  forth 
Wieland  the  Smith,  who  made  himself  a  dress  with 
wings  and,  clad  in  it,  rose  and  descended  against  the 
wind  and  in  spite  of  it.  Indian  mythology,  in  addition 
to  the  story  of  the  demons  and  their  rigid  dirigible, 
already  quoted,  gives  the  story  of  Hanouam,  who 
fitted  himself  with  wings  by  means  of  which  he  sailed 
in  the  air  and,  according  to  his  desire,  landed  in  the 
sacred  Lauka.  Bladud,  the  ninth  king  of  Britain,  is 
said  to  have  crowned  his  feats  of  wizardry  by  making 
himself  wings  and  attempting  to  fly — but  the  effort 
cost  him  a  broken  neck.  Bladud  may  have  been  as 
mythic  as  Uther,  and  again  he  may  have  been  a  very 
early  pioneer.  The  Finnish  epic,  *  Kalevala,'  tells  how 
Ilmarinen  the  Smith  *  forged  an  eagle  of  fire,'  with 
*  boat's  walls  between  the  wings/  after  which  he  *  sat 
down  on  the  bird's  back  and  bones,'  and  flew. 

Pure  myths,  these,  telling  how  the  desire  to  fly  was 
characteristic  of  every  age  and  every  people,  and  how, 
from  time  to  time,  there  arose  an  experimenter  bolder 
than  his  fellows,  who  made  some  attempt  to  translate 
desire  into  achievement.  And  the  spirit  that  animated 
these  pioneers,  in  a  time  when  things  new  were  accounted 
things  accursed,  for  the  most  part,  has  found  expression 
in  this  present  century  in  the  utter  daring  and  disregard 
of  both  danger  and  pain  that  stamps  the  flying  man,  a 
type  of  humanity  differing  in  spirit  from  his  earth- 
bound  fellows  as  fully  as  the  soldier  differs  from  the 
priest. 

Throughout    mediaeval    times,    records    attest    that 

9 


A  HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

here  and  there  some  man  believed  in  and  attempted 
flight,  and  at  the  same  time  it  is  clear  that  such  were 
regarded  as  in  league  with  the  powers  of  evil.  There 
is  the  half-legend,  half-history  of  Simon  the  Magician, 
who,  in  the  third  year  of  the  reign  of  Nero  announced 
that  he  would  raise  himself  in  the  air,  in  order  to  assert 
his  superiority  over  St  Paul.  The  legend  states  that 
by  the  aid  of  certain  demons  whom  he  had  prevailed 
on  to  assist  him,  he  actually  lifted  himself  in  the  air — 
but  St  Paul  prayed  him  down  again.  He  slipped 
through  the  claws  of  the  demons  and  fell  headlong  on 
the  Forum  at  Rome,  breaking  his  neck.  The  *  demons  ' 
may  have  been  some  primitive  form  of  hot-air  balloon, 
or  a  glider  with  which  the  magician  attempted  to  rise 
into  the  wind;  more  probably,  however,  Simon 
threatened  to  ascend  and  made  the  attempt  with  apparatus 
as  unsuitable  as  Bladud's  wings,  paying  the  inevitable 
penalty.  Another  version  of  the  story  gives  St  Peter 
instead  of  St  Paul  as  the  one  whose  prayers  foiled  Simon 
— apart  from  the  identity  of  the  apostle,  the  two  accounts 
are  similar,  and  both  define  the  attitude  of  the  age 
toward  investigation  and  experiment  in  things 
untried. 

Another  and  later  circumstantial  story,  with  similar 
evidence  of  some  fact  behind  it,  is  that  of  the  Saracen 
of  Constantinople,  who,  in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor 
Comnenus — some  little  time  before  Norman  William 
made  Saxon  Harold  swear  away  his  crown  on  the 
bones  of  the  saints  at  Rouen — attempted  to  fly  round 
the  hippodrome  at  Constantinople,  having  Comnenus 
among  the  great  throng  who  gathered  to  witness  the 
feat.  The  Saracen  chose  for  his  starting-point  a  tower 
in  the  midst  of  the  hippodrome,  and  on  the  top  of  the 

10 


THE  PERIOD  OF  LEGEND 

tower  he  stood,  clad  in  a  long  white  robe  which  was 
stiffened  with  rods  so  as  to  spread  and  catch  the  breeze, 
waiting  for  a  favourable  wind  to  strike  on  him.  The 
wind  was  so  long  in  coming  that  the  spectators  grew 
impatient.  *  Fly,  O  Saracen!  '  they  called  to  him.  '  Do 
not  keep  us  waiting  so  long  while  you  try  the  wind!' 
Comnenus,  who  had  present  with  him  the  Sultan  of 
the  Turks,  gave  it  as  his  opinion  that  the  experiment 
was  both  dangerous  and  vain,  and,  possibly  in  an 
attempt  to  controvert  such  statement,  the  Saracen 
leaned  into  the  wind  and  *  rose  like  a  bird  '  at  the  outset. 
But  the  record  of  Cousin,  who  tells  the  story  in  his 
Histoire  de  Constantinople ',  states  that  *  the  weight  of  his 
body  having  more  power  to  drag  him  down  than  his 
artificial  wings  had  to  sustain  him,  he  broke  his  bones, 
and  his  evil  plight  was  such  that  he  did  not  long 
survive/ 

Obviously,  the  Saracen  was  anticipating  Lilienthal 
and  his  gliders  by  some  centuries;  like  Simon,  a  genuine 
experimenter — both  legends  bear  the  impress  of  fact 
supporting  them.  Contemporary  with  him,  and 
belonging  to  the  history  rather  than  the  legends  of 
flight,  was  Oliver,  the  monk  of  Malmesbury,  who  in 
the  year  1065  made  himself  wings  after  the  pattern  of 
those  supposed  to  have  been  used  by  Daedalus,  attaching 
them  to  his  hands  and  feet  and  attempting  to  fly  with 
them.  Twysden,  in  his  Historic  Anglican*  Scrip  tores  Xy 
sets  forth  the  story  of  Oliver,  who  chose  a  high  tower 
as  his  starting-point,  and  launched  himself  in  the  air. 
As  a  matter  of  course,  he  fell,  permanently  injuring 
himself,  and  died  some  time  later. 

After  these,  a  gap  of  centuries,  filled  in  by  impossible 
stones  of  magical  flight  by  witches,  wizards,  and  the 

II 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

like — imagination  was  fertile  in  the  dark  ages,  but  the 
ban  of  the  church  was  on  all  attempt  at  scientific  develop- 
ment, especially  in  such  a  matter  as  the  conquest  of 
the  air.  Yet  there  were  observers  of  nature  who  argued 
that  since  birds  could  raise  themselves  by  flapping 
their  wings,  man  had  only  to  make  suitable  wings, 
flap  them,  and  he  too  would  fly.  As  early  as  the  thirteenth 
century  Roger  Bacon,  the  scientific  friar  of  unbounded 
inquisitiveness  and  not  a  little  real  genius,  announced 
that  there  could  be  made  *  some  flying  instrument,  so 
that  a  man  sitting  in  the  middle  and  turning  some 
mechanism  may  put  in  motion  some  artificial  wings 
which  may  beat  the  air  like  a  bird  flying.'  But  being 
a  cautious  man,  with  a  natural  dislike  for  being  burnt 
at  the  stake  as  a  necromancer  through  having  put  forward 
such  a  dangerous  theory,  Roger  added,  *  not  that  I 
ever  knew  a  man  who  had  such  an  instrument,  but  I 
am  particularly  acquainted  with  the  man  who  contrived 
one/  This  might  have  been  a  lame  defence  if  Roger 
had  been  brought  to  trial  as  addicted  to  black  arts; 
he  seems  to  have  trusted  to  the  inadmissibility  of  hearsay 
evidence. 

Some  four  centuries  later  there  was  published  a 
book  entitled  Perugia  Augusta^  written  by  one  C. 
Crispolti  of  Perugia — the  date  of  the  work  in  question 
is  1648.  In  it  is  recorded  that  '  one  day,  towards  the 
close  of  the  fifteenth  century,  whilst  many  of  the  principal 
gentry  had  come  to  Perugia  to  honour  the  wedding  of 
Giovanni  Paolo  Baglioni,  and  some  lancers  were  riding 
down  the  street  by  his  palace,  Giovanni  Baptisti  Danti 
unexpectedly  and  by  means  of  a  contrivance  of  wings 
that  he  had  constructed  proportionate  to  the  size  of  his 
body  took  off  from  the  top  of  a  tower  near  by,  and  with 

12 


THE  PERIOD  OF  LEGEND 

a  horrible  hissing  sound  flew  successfully  across  the 
great  Piazza,  which  was  densely  crowded.  But  (oh, 
horror  of  an  unexpected  accident!)  he  had  scarcely 
flown  three  hundred  paces  on  his  way  to  a  certain  point 
when  the  mainstay  of  the  left  wing  gave  way,  and, 
being  unable  to  support  himself  with  the  right  alone, 
he  fell  on  a  roof  and  was  injured  in  consequence. 
Those  who  saw  not  only  this  flight,  but  also  the  wonderful 
construction  of  the  framework  of  the  wings,  said — 
and  tradition  bears  them  out — that  he  several  times 
flew  over  the  waters  of  Lake  Thrasimene  to  learn  how 
he  might  gradually  come  to  earth.  But,  notwithstanding 
his  great  genius,  he  never  succeeded.* 

This  -reads  circumstantially  enough,  but  it  may  be 
borne  in  mind  that  the  date  of  writing  is  more  than 
half  a  century  later  than  the  time  of  the  alleged  achieve- 
ment— the  story  had  had  time  to  round  itself  out.  Danti, 
however,  is  mentioned  by  a  number  of  writers,  one  of 
whom  states  that  the  failure  of  his  experiment  was  due 
to  the  prayers  of  some  individual  of  a  conservative 
turn  of  mind,  who  prayed  so  vigorously  that  Danti  fell 
appropriately  enough  on  a  church  and  injured  himself 
to  such  an  extent  as  to  put  an  end  to  his  flying  career. 
That  Danti  experimented,  there  is  little  doubt,  in  view 
of  the  volume  of  evidence  on  the  point,  but  the  darkness 
of  the  Middle  Ages  hides  the  real  truth  as  to  the  results 
of  his  experiments.  If  he  had  actually  flown  over 
Thrasimene,  as  alleged,  then  in  all  probability  both 
Napoleon  and  Wellington  would  have  had  air  scouts 
at  Waterloo. 

Danti's  story  may  be  taken  as  fact  or  left  as  fable, 
and  with  it  the  period  of  legend  or  vague  statement 
may  be  said  to  end — the  rest  is  history,  both  of  genuine 

13 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

experimenters  and  of  charlatans.  Such  instances  of 
legend  as  are  given  here  are  not  a  tithe  of  the  whole, 
but  there  is  sufficient  in  the  actual  history  of  flight  to 
bar  out  more  than  this  brief  mention  of  the  legends, 
which,  on  the  whole,  go  farther  to  prove  man's  desire 
to  fly  than  his  study  and  endeavour  to  solve  the  problems 
of  the  air. 


II 


EARLY    EXPERIMENTS 

So  far,  the  stories  of  the  development  of  flight  are  either 
legendary  or  of  more  or  less  doubtful  authenticity, 
even  including  that  of  Danti,  who,  although  a  man  of 
remarkable  attainments  in  more  directions  than  that 
of  attempted  flight,  suffers — so  far  as  reputation  is 
concerned — from  the  inexactitudes  of  his  chroniclers; 
he  may  have  soared  over  Thrasimene,  as  stated,  or  a 
mere  hop  with  an  ineffectual  glider  may  have  grown 
with  the  years  to  a  legend  of  gliding  flight.  So  far, 
too,  there  is  no  evidence  of  the  study  that  the  conquest 
of  the  air  demanded;  such  men  as  made  experiments 
either  launched  themselves  in  the  air  from  some  height 
with  made-up  wings  or  other  apparatus,  and  paid  the 
penalty,  or  else  constructed  some  form  of  machine 
which  would  not  leave  the  earth,  and  then  gave  up. 
Each  man  followed  his  own  way,  and  there  was  no 
attempt — without  the  printing  press  and  the  dissemina- 
tion of  knowledge  there  was  little  possibility  of  attempt 
— on  the  part  of  any  one  to  benefit  by  the  failures  of 
others. 

Legend  and  doubtful  history  carries  up  to  the 
fifteenth  century,  and  then  came  Leonardo  da  Vinci, 
first  student  of  flight  whose  work  endures  to  the  present 
day.  The  world  knows  da  Vinci  as  artist;  his  age 
knew  him  as  architect,  engineer,  artist,  and  scientist 

15 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

in  an  age  when  science  was  a  single  study,  comprising  all 
knowledge  from  mathematics  to  medicine.  He  was, 
of  course,  in  league  with  the  devil,  for  in  no  other  way 
could  his  range  of  knowledge  and  observation  be 
explained  by  his  contemporaries;  he  left  a  Treatise  on 
the  Flight  of  Birds  in  which  are  statements  and  deductions 
that  had  to  be  rediscovered  when  the  Treatise  had  been 
forgotten — da  Vinci  anticipated  modern  knowledge 
as  Plato  anticipated  modern  thought,  and  blazed  the 
first  broad  trail  toward  flight. 

One  Cuperus,  who  wrote  a  Treatise  on  the  Excellence 
of  Man,  asserted  that  da  Vinci  translated  his  theories 
into  practice,  and  actually  flew,  but  the  statement  is 
unsupported.  That  he  made  models,  especially  on  the 
helicopter  principle,  is  past  question;  these  were  made 
of  paper  and  wire,  and  actuated  by  springs  of  steel  wire, 
which  caused  them  to  lift  themselves  in  the  air.  It  is, 
however,  in  the  theories  which  he  put  forward  that 
da  Vinci's  investigations  are  of  greatest  interest;  these 
prove  him  a  patient  as  well  as  a  keen  student  of  the 
principles  of  flight,  and  show  that  his  manifold  activities 
did  not  prevent  him  from  devoting  some  lengthy 
periods  to  observations  of  bird  flight. 

*  A  bird/  he  says  in  his  Treatise ',  *  is  an  instrument 
working  according  to  mathematical  law,  which  instru- 
ment it  is  within  the  capacity  of  man  to  reproduce 
with  all  its  movements,  but  not  with  a  corresponding 
degree  of  strength,  though  it  is  deficient  only  in  power 
of  maintaining  equilibrium.  We  may  say,  therefore, 
that  such  an  instrument  constructed  by  man  is  lacking 
in  nothing  except  the  life  of  the  bird,  and  this  life  must 
needs  be  supplied  from  that  of  man.  The  life  which 
resides  in  the  bird's  members  will,  without  doubt, 

16 


EARLY  EXPERIMENTS 

better  conform  to  their  needs  than  will  that  of  a 
man  which  is  separated  from  them,  and  especially  in 
the  almost  imperceptible  movements  which  produce 
equilibrium.  But  since  we  see  that  the  bird  is  equipped 
for  many  apparent  varieties  of  movement,  we  are  able 
from  this  experience  to  deduce  that  the  most  rudimentary 
of  these  movements  will  be  capable  of  being  compre- 
hended by  man's  understanding,  and  that  he  will  to  a 
great  extent  be  able  to  provide  against  the  destruction 
of  that  instrument  of  which  he  himself  has  become  the 
living  principle  and  the  propeller/ 

In  this  is  the  definite  belief  of  da  Vinci  that  man  is 
capable  of  flight,  together  with  a  far  more  definite 
statement  of  the  principles  by  which  flight  is  to-  be 
achieved  than  any  which  had  preceded  it — and  for 
that  matter,  than  many  that  have  succeeded  it.  Two 
further  extracts  from  his  work  will  show  the  exactness 
of  his  observations  : — 

*  When  a  bird  which  is  in  equilibrium  throws  the 
centre  of  resistance  of  the  wings  behind  the  centre  of 
gravity,  then  such  a  bird  will  descend  with  its  head 
downward.  This  bird  which  finds  itself  in  equilibrium 
shall  have  the  centre  of  resistance  of  the  wings  more 
forward  than  the  bird's  centre  of  gravity;  then  such  a 
bird  will  fall  with  its  tail  turned  toward  the  earth.' 

And  again:  *  A  man,  when  flying,  shall  be  free 
from  the  waist  up,  that  he  may  be  able  to  keep  himself 
in  equilibrium  as  he  does  in  a  boat,  so  that  the  centre 
of  his  gravity  and  of  the  instrument  may  set  itself  in 
equilibrium  and  change  when  necessity  requires  it  to 
the  changing  of  the  centre  of  its  resistance.' 

Here,  in  this  last  quotation,  are  the  first  beginnings 
of  the  inherent  stability  which  proved  so  great  an 


A  HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

advance  in  design,  in  this  twentieth  century.  But  the 
extracts  given  do  not  begin  to  exhaust  the  range  of 
da  Vinci's  observations  and  deductions.  With  regard  to 
bird  flight,  he  observed  that  so  long  as  a  bird  keeps  its 
wings  outspread  it  cannot  fall  directly  to  earth,  but 
must  glide  down  at  an  angle  to  alight — a  small  thing, 
now  that  the  principle  of  the  plane  in  opposition  to  the 
air  is  generally  grasped,  but  da  Vinci  had  to  find  it  out. 
From  observation  he  gathered  how  a  bird  checks  its 
own  speed  by  opposing  tail  and  wing  surface  to  the 
direction  of  flight,  and  thus  alights  at  the  proper 
*  landing  speed.'  He  proved  the  existence  of  upward 
air  currents  by  noting  how  a  bird  takes  off  from  level 
earth  with  wings  outstretched  and  motionless,  and, 
in  order  to  get  an  efficient  substitute  for  the  natural 
wing,  he  recommended  that  there  be  used  something 
similar  to  the  membrane  of  the  wing  of  a  bat — from 
this  to  the  doped  fabric  of  an  aeroplane  wing  is  but 
a  small  step,  for  both  are  equally  impervious  to  air. 
Again,  da  Vinci  recommended  that  experiments  in 
flight  be  conducted  at  a  good  height  from  the  ground, 
since,  if  equilibrium  be  lost  through  any  cause,  the 
height  gives  time  to  regain  it.  This  recommendation, 
by  the  way,  received  ample  support  in  the  training 
areas  of  war  pilots. 

Man's  muscles,  said  da  Vinci,  are  fully  sufficient 
to  enable  him  to  fly,  for  the  larger  birds,  he  noted, 
employ  but  a  small  part  of  their  strength  in  keeping 
themselves  afloat  in  the  air — by  this  theory  he  attempted 
to  encourage  experiment,  just  as,  when  his  time  came, 
Borelli  reached  the  opposite  conclusion  and  discouraged 
it.  That  Borelli  was  right — so  far — and  da  Vinci 
wrong,  detracts  not  at  all  from  the  repute  of  the  earlier 

IS 


EARLY  EXPERIMENTS 

investigator,  who  had  but  the  resources  of  his  age  to 
support  investigations  conducted  in  the  spirit  of  ages 
after. 

His  chief  practical  contributions  to  the  science  of 
flight — apart  from  numerous  drawings  which  have 
still  a  value — are  the  helicopter  or  lifting  screw,  and  the 
parachute.  The  former,  as  already  noted,  he  made 
and  proved  effective  in  model  form,  and  the  principle 
which  he  demonstrated  is  that  of  the  helicopter  of 
to-day,  on  which  sundry  experimenters  work  spasmodi- 
cally, in  spite  of  the  success  of  the  plane  with  its  driving 
propeller.  As  to  the  parachute,  the  idea  was  doubtless 
inspired  by  observation  of  the  effect  a  bird  produced  by 
pressure  of  its  wings  against  the  direction  of  flight. 

Da  Vinci's  conclusions,  and  his  experiments,  were 
forgotten  easily  by  most  of  his  contemporaries;  his 
Treatise  lay  forgotten  for  nearly  four  centuries,  over- 
shadowed, mayhap,  by  his  other  work.  There  was, 
however,  a  certain  Paolo  Guidotti  of  Lucca,  who  lived 
in  the  latter  half  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  who 
attempted  to  carry  da  Vinci's  theories — one  of  them, 
at  least,  into  practice.  For  this  Guidotti,  who  was  by 
profession  an  artist  and  by  inclination  an  investigator, 
made  for  himself  wings,  of  which  the  framework  was 
of  whalebone;  these  he  covered  with  feathers,  and 
with  them  made  a  number  of  gliding  flights,  attaining 
considerable  proficiency.  He  is  said  in  the  end  to  have 
made  a  flight  of  about  four  hundred  yards,  but  this 
attempt  at  solving  the  problem  ended  on  a  house  roof, 
where  Guidotti  broke  his  thigh  bone.  After  that, 
apparently,  he  gave  up  the  idea  of  flight,  and  went 
back  to  painting. 

One  other,  a  Venetian  architect  named  Veranzio, 

19 


A   HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

studied  da  Vinci's  theory  of  the  parachute,  and  found  it 
correct,  if  contemporary  records  and  even  pictorial 
presentment  are  correct.  Da  Vinci  showed  his  con- 
ception of  a  parachute  as  a  sort  of  inverted  square  bag ; 
Veranzio  modified  this  to  a  *  sort  of  square  sail  extended 
by  four  rods  of  equal  size  and  having  four  cords  attached 
at  the  corners,'  by  means  of  which  *  a  man  could  without 
danger  throw  himself  from  the  top  of  a  tower  or  any 
high  place.  For  though  at  the  moment  there  may  be 
no  wind,  yet  the  effort  of  his  falling  will  carry  up  the 
wind,  which  the  sail  will  hold,  by  which  means  he  does 
not  fall  suddenly  but  descends  little  by  little.  The  size 
of  the  sail  should  be  measured  to  the  man.'  By  this 
last,  evidently,  Veranzio  intended  to  convey  that  the 
sheet  must  be  of  such  content  as  would  enclose  sufficient 
air  to  support  the  weight  of  the  parachutist. 

Veranzio  made  his  experiments  about  1617-1618, 
but,  naturally,  they  carried  him  no  farther  than  the 
mere  descent  to  earth,  and  since  a  descent  is  merely  a 
descent,  it  is  to  be  conjectured  that  he  soon  got  tired 
of  dropping  from  high  roofs,  and  took  to  designing 
architecture  instead  of  putting  it  to  such  a  use.  With 
the  end  of  his  experiments  the  work  of  da  Vinci  in 
relation  to  flying  became  neglected  for  nearly  four 
centuries. 

Apart  from  these  two  experimenters,  there  is  little 
to  record  in  the  matter  either  of  experiment  or  study 
until  the  seventeenth  century.  Francis  Bacon,  it  is 
true,  wrote  about  flying  in  his  Syfoa  Syfoarum,  and 
mentioned  the  subject  in  the  New  Atlantis ,  but,  except 
for  the  insight  that  he  showed  even  in  superficial  mention 
of  any  specific  subject,  he  does  not  appear  to  have 
made  attempt  at  serious  investigation,  '  Spreading  of 

20 


EARLY   EXPERIMENTS 

Feathers,  thin  and  close  and  in  great  breadth  will 
likewise  bear  up  a  great  Weight,'  says  Francis,  *  being 
even  laid  without  Tilting  upon  the  sides.'  But  a  lesser 
genius  could  have  told  as  much,  even  in  that  age,  and 
though  the  great  Sir  Francis  is  sometimes  adduced  as 
one  of  the  early  students  of  the  problems  of  flight,  his 
writings  will  not  sustain  the  reputation. 

The  seventeenth  century,  however,  gives  us  three 
names,  those  of  Borelli,  Lana,  and  Robert  Hooke,  all 
of  which  take  definite  place  in  the  history  of  flight. 
Borelli  ranks  as  one  of  the  great  figures  in  the  study  of 
aeronautical  problems,  in  spite  of  erroneous  deductions 
through  which  he  arrived  at  a  purely  negative  conclusion 
with  regard  to  the  possibility  of  human  flight. 

Borelli  was  a  versatile  genius.  Born  in  1608,  he 
was  practically  contemporary  with  Francesco  Lana, 
and  there  is  evidence  that  he  either  knew  or  was  in 
correspondence  with  many  prominent  members  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  Great  Britain,  more  especially  with 
John  Collins,  Dr  Wallis,  and  Henry  Oldenburgh,  the 
then  Secretary  of  the  Society.  He  was  author  of  a  long 
list  of  scientific  essays,  two  of  which  only  are  responsible 
for  his  fame,  viz.,  Theorice  Medic*earum  Planetarumy 
published  in  Florence,  and  the  better  known  posthumous 
De  Motu  Animalium.  The  first  of  these  two  is  an 
astronomical  study  in  which  Borelli  gives  evidence  of 
an  instinctive  knowledge  of  gravitation,  though  no 
definite  expression  is  given  of  this.  The  second  work, 
De  Motu  Animalium^  deals  with  the  mechanical  action 
of  the  limbs  of  birds  and  animals  and  with  a  theory  of 
the  action  of  the  internal  organs.  A  section  of  the  first 
part  of  this  work,  called  De  Volatu^  is  a  study  of  bird 
flight;  it  is  quite  independent  of  Da  Vinci's  earlier 

21 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

work,  which  had  been  forgotten  and  remained  un- 
noticed until  near  on  the  beginning  of  practical  flight. 

Marey,  in  his  work,  La  Machine  Animale^  credits 
Borelli  with  the  first  correct  idea  of  the  mechanism  of 
flight.  He  says:  *  Therefore  we  must  be  allowed  to 
render  to  the  genius  of  Borelli  the  justice  which  is  due 
to  him,  and  only  claim  for  ourselves  the  merit  of  having 
furnished  the  experimental  demonstration  or  a  truth 
already  suspected.'  In  fact,  all  subsequent  studies  on 
this  subject  concur  in  making  Borelli  the  first  investigator 
who  illustrated  the  purely  mechanical  theory  of  the 
action  of  a  bird's  wings. 

Borelli's  study  is  divided  into  a  series  of  propositions 
in  which  he  traces  the  principles  of  flight,  and  the 
mechanical  actions  of  the  wings  of  birds.  The  most 
interesting  of  these  are  the  propositions  in  which  he 
sets  forth  the  method  in  which  birds  move  their  wings 
during  flight  and  the  manner  in  which  the  air  offers 
resistance  to  the  stroke  of  the  wing.  1  With  regard  to 
.the  first  of  these  two  points  he  says:  '  When  birds  in 
'  repose  rest  on  the  earth  their  wings  are  folded  up  close 
against  their  flanks,  but  when  wishing  to  start  on  their 
flight  they  first  bend  their  legs  and  leap  into  the  air. 
Whereupon  the  joints  of  their  wings  are  straightened 
out  to  form  a  straight  line  at  right  angles  to  the  lateral 
surface  of  the  breast,  so  that  the  two  wings,  outstretched, 
are  placed,  as  it  were,  like  the  arms  of  a  cross  to  the  body 
of  the  bird.  Next,  since  the  wings  with  their  feathers 
attached  form  almost  a  plane  surface,  they  are  raised 
slightly  above  the  horizontal,  and  with  a  most  quick 
impulse  beat  down  in  a  direction  almost  perpendicular 
to  the  wing-plane,  upon  the  underlying  air;  and  to  so 
intense  a  beat  the  air,  notwithstanding  it  to  be  fluid, 

22 


EARLY   EXPERIMENTS 

offers  resistance,  partly  by  reason  of  its  natural  inertia, 
which  seeks  to  retain  it  at  rest,  and  partly  because  the 
particles  of  the  air,  compressed  by  the  swiftness  of  the 
stroke,  resist  this  compression  by  their  elasticity,  just 
like  the  hard  ground.  Hence  the  whole  mass  of  the 
bird  rebounds,  making  a  fresh  leap  through  the  air; 
whence  it  follows  that  flight  is  simply  a  motion  composed 
of  successive  leaps  accomplished  through  the  air.  And 
I  remark  that  a  wing  can  easily  beat  the  air  in  a  direction 
almost  perpendicular  to  its  plane  surface,  although 
only  a  single  one  of  the  corners  of  the  humerus  bone 
is  attached  to  the  scapula,  the  whole  extent  of  its  base 
remaining  free  and  loose,  while  the  greater  transverse 
feathers  are  joined  to  the  lateral  skin  of  the  thorax. 
Nevertheless  the  wing  can  easily  revolve  about  its  base 
like  unto  a  fan.  Nor  are  there  lacking  tendon  ligaments 
v/hich  restrain  the  feathers  and  prevent  them  from 
opening  farther,  in  the  same  fashion  that  sheets  hold 
in  the  sails  of  ships.  No  less  admirable  is  nature's 
cunning  in  unfolding  and  folding  the  wings  upwards, 
for  she  folds  them  not  laterally,  but  by  moving  upwards 
edgewise  the  osseous  parts  wherein  the  roots  of  the 
feathers  are  inserted;  for  thus,  without  encountering 
the  air's  resistance  the  upward  motion  of  the  wing 
surface  is  made  as  with  a  sword,  hence  they  can  be 
uplifted  with  but  small  force.  But  thereafter  when  the 
wings  are  twisted  by  being  drawn  transversely  and  by 
the  resistance  of  the  air,  they  are  flattened  as  has  been 
declared  and  will  be  made  manifest  hereafter.' 

Then  with  reference  to  the  resistance  to  the  air  of 

the  wings  he  explains:    *  The  air  when  struck  offers 

resistance  by  its  elastic  virtue  through  which  the  particles 

of  the  air  compressed  by  the  wing-beat  strive  to  expand 

H.A.  23  c 


A   HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

again.  Through  these  two  causes  of  resistance  the 
downward  beat  of  the  wing  is  not  only  opposed,  but 
even  caused  to  recoil  with  a  reflex  movement;  and  these 
two  causes  of  resistance  ever  increase  the  more  the 
down  stroke  of  the  wing  is  maintained  and  accelerated. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  impulse  of  the  wing  is  continuously 
diminished  and  weakened  by  the  growing  resistance. 
Hereby  the  force  of  the  wing  and  the  resistance  become 
balanced;  so  that,  manifestly,  the  air  is  beaten  by  the 
wing  with  the  same  force  as  the  resistance  to  the 
stroke/ 

He  concerns  himself  also  with  the  most  difficult 
problem  that  confronts  the  flying  man  of  to-day,  namely, 
landing  effectively,  and  his  remarks  on  this  subject 
would  be  instructive  even  to  an  air  pilot  of  these  days: 
*  Now  the  ways  and  means  by  which  the  speed  is  slackened 
at  the  end  of  a  flight  are  these.  The  bird  spreads  its 
wings  and  tail  so  that  their  concave  surfaces  are  per- 
pendicular to  the  direction  of  motion;  in  this  way, 
the  spreading  feathers,  like  a  ship's  sail,  strike  against 
the  still  air,  check  the  speed,  and  so  that  most  of  the 
impetus  may  be  stopped,  the  wings  are  flapped  quickly 
and  strongly  forward,  inducing  a  contrary  motion,  so 
that  the  bird  absolutely  or  very  nearly  stops.' 

At  the  end  of  his  study  Borelli  came  to  a  conclusion 
which  militated  greatly  against  experiment  with  any 
heavier-than-air  apparatus,  until  well  on  into  the  nine- 
teenth century,  for  having  gone  thoroughly  into  the 
subject  of  bird  flight  he  states  distinctly  in  his  last 
proposition  on  the  subject  that  *  It  is  impossible  that 
men  should  be  able  to  fly  craftily  by  their  own  strength.' 
This  statement,  of  course,  remains  true  up  to  the  present 
day,  for  no  man  has  yet  devised  the  means  by  which 

24 


EARLY   EXPERIMENTS 

he  can  raise  himself  in  the  air  and  maintain  himself 
there  by  mere  muscular  effort. 

From  the  time  of  Borelli  up  to  the  development  of 
the  steam  engine  it  may  be  said  that  flight  by  means  of 
any  heavier-than-air  apparatus  was  generally  regarded 
as  impossible,  and  apart  from  certain  deductions  which 
a  little  experiment  would  have  shown  to  be  doomed  to 
failure,  this  method  of  flight  was  not  followed  up.  It 
is  not  to  be  wondered  at,  when  Borelli's  exaggerated 
estimate  of  the  strength  expended  by  birds  in  proportion 
to  their  weight  is  borne  in  mind;  he  alleged  that 
the  motive  force  in  birds'  wings  is  10,000  times  greater 
than  the  resistance  of  their  weight,  and  with  regard  to 
human  flight  he  remarks : — 

*  When,  therefore,  it  is  asked  whether  men  may  be 
able  to  fly  by  their  own  strength,  it  must  be  seen  whether 
the  motive  power  of  the  pectoral  muscles  (the  strength 
of  which  is  indicated  and  measured  by  their  size)  is 
proportionately  great,  as  it  is  evident  that  it  must  exceed 
the  resistance  of  the  weight  of  the  whole  human  body 
10,000  times,  together  with  the  weight  of  enormous 
wings  which  should  be  attached  to  the  arms.  And  it 
is  clear  that  the  motive  power  of  the  pectoral  muscles 
in  men  is  much  less  than  is  necessary  for  flight,  for  in 
birds  the  bulk  and  weight  of  the  muscles  for  flapping 
the  wings  are  not  less  than  a  sixth  part  of  the  entire 
weight  of  the  body.  Therefore,  it  would  be  necessary 
that  the  pectoral  muscles  of  a  man  should  weigh  more 
than  a  sixth  part  of  the  entire  weight  of  his  body;  so 
also  the  arms,  by  flapping  with  the  wings  attached, 
should  be  able  to  exert  a  power  10,000  times  greater 
than  the  weight  of  the  human  body  itself.  But  they 
are  far  below  such  excess,  for  the  aforesaid  pectoral 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

muscles  do  not  equal  a  hundredth  part  of  the  entire 
weight  of  a  man.  Wherefore  either  the  strength  of 
the  muscles  ought  to  be  increased  or  the  weight  of  the 
human  body  must  be  decreased,  so  that  the  same  pro- 
portion obtains  in  it  as  exists  in  birds.  Hence  it  is 
deducted  that  the  Icarian  invention  is  entirely  mythical 
because  impossible,  for  it  is  not  possible  either  to  increase 
a  man's  pectoral  muscles  or  to  diminish  the  weight  of 
the  human  body;  and  whatever  apparatus  is  used, 
although  it  is  possible  to  increase  the  momentum,  the 
velocity  or  the  power  employed  can  never  equal  the 
resistance;  and  therefore  wing  flapping  by  the  contraction 
of  muscles  cannot  give  out  enough  power  to  carry  up 
the  heavy  body  of  a  man/ 

It  may  be  said  that  practically  all  the  conclusions 
which  Borelli  reached  in  his  study  were  negative. 
Although  contemporary  with  Lana,  he  perceived  the 
one  factor  which  rendered  Lana's  project  for  flight  by 
means  of  vacuum  globes  an  impossibility — he  saw  that 
no  globe  could  be  constructed  sufficiently  light  for 
flight,  and  at  the  same  time  sufficiently  strong  to  with- 
stand the  pressure  of  the  outside  atmosphere.  He  does 
not  appear  to  have  made  any  experiments  in  flying  on 
his  own  account,  having,  as  he  asserts  most  definitely, 
no  faith  in  any  invention  designed  to  lift  man  from 
the  surface  of  the  earth.  But  his  work,  from  which 
only  the  foregoing  short  quotations  can  be  given,  is, 
nevertheless,  of  indisputable  value,  for  he  settled  the 
mechanics  of  bird  flight,  and  paved  the  way  for  those 
later  investigators  who  had,  first,  the  steam  engine,  and 
later  the  internal  combustion  engine — two  factors  in 
mechanical  flight  which  would  have  seemed  as  impossible 
to  Borelli  as  would  wireless  telegraphy  to  a  student  of 

26 


EARLY   EXPERIMENTS 

Napoleonic   times.      On    such   foundations   as   his   age 
afforded  Borelli  built  solidly  and  well,  so  that  he  ranks  \ 
as  one  of  the  greatest — if  not  actually  the  greatest — of 
the   investigators   into   this   subject   before   the   age   of 
steam. 

The  conclusion,  that  *  the  motive  force  in  birds' 
wings  is  apparently  ten  thousand  times  greater  than 
the  resistance  of  their  weight/  is  erroneous,  of  course, 
but  study  of  the  translation  from  which  the  foregoing 
excerpt  is  taken  will  show  that  the  error  detracts  very 
little  from  the  value  of  the  work  itself.  Borelli  sets  out 
very  definitely  the  mechanism  of  flight,  in  such  fashion 
that  he  who  runs  may  read.  His  reference  to  '  the  use 
of  a  large  vessel/  etc.,  concerns  the  suggestion  made 
by  Francesco  Lana,  who  antedated  Borelli's  publication 
of  De  Motu  Animalium  by  some  ten  years  with  his 
suggestion  for  an  *  aerial  ship/  as  he  called  it.  Lana's 
mind  shows,  as  regards  flight,  a  more  imaginative 
twist;  Borelli  dived  down  into  first  causes,  and  reached 
mathematical  conclusions;  Lana  conceived  a  theory 
and  upheld  it — theoretically,  since  the  manner  of  his 
life  precluded  experiment. 

Francesco  Lana,  son  of  a  noble  family,  was  born 
in  1631;  in  1647  ne  was  received  as  a  novice  into  the 
Society  of  Jesus  at  Rome,  and  remained  a  pious  member 
of  the  Jesuit  society  until  the  end  of  his  life.  He  was 
greatly  handicapped  in  his  scientific  investigations  by 
the  vows  of  poverty  which  the  rules  of  the  Order  imposed 
on  him.  He  was  more  scientist  than  priest  all  his  life; 
for  two  years  he  held  the  post  of  Professor  of  Mathematics 
at  Ferrara,  and  up  to  the  time  of  his  death,  in  1687,  he 
spent  by  far  the  greater  part  of  his  time  in  scientific 
research.  He  had  the  dubious  advantage  of  living  in 

27 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

an  age  when  one  man  could  cover  the  whole  range  of 
science,  and  this  he  seems  to  have  done  very  thoroughly. 
There  survives  an  immense  work  of  his  entitled, 
Magisterium  Nature  et  Artis^  which  embraces  the  whole 
field  of  scientific  knowledge  as  that  was  developed  in 
the  period  in  which  Lana  lived.  In  an  earlier  work  of 
his,  published  in  Brescia  in  1670,  appears  his  famous 
treatise  on  the  aerial  ship,  a  problem  which  Lana  worked 
out  with  thoroughness.  He  was  unable  to  make  practical 
experiments,  and  thus  failed  to  perceive  the  one  insuper- 
able drawback  to  his  project — of  which  more  anon. 

Only  extracts  from  the  translation  of  Lana's  work 
can  be  given  here,  but  sufficient  can  be  given  to  show 
fully  the  means  by  which  he  designed  to  achieve  the 
conquest  of  the  air.  He  begins  by  mention  of  the 
celebrated  pigeon  of  Archytas  the  Philosopher,  and 
advances  one  or  two  theories  with  regard  to  the  way  in 
which  this  mechanical  bird  was  constructed,  and  then 
he  recites,  apparently  with  full  belief  in  it,  the  fable  of 
Regiomontanus  and  the  eagle  that  he  is  said  to  have 
constructed  to  accompany  Charles  V.  on  his  entry  into 
Nuremberg.  In  fact,  Lana  starts  his  work  with  a  study 
of  the  pioneers  of  mechanical  flying  up  to  his  own  time, 
and  then  outlines  his  own  devices  for  the  construction 
of  mechanical  birds  before  proceeding  to  detail  the 
construction  of  the  aerial  ship.  Concerning  primary 
experiments  for  this  he  says: — 

'  I  will,  first  of  all,  presuppose  that  air  has  weight 
owing  to  the  vapours  and  halations  which  ascend  from 
the  earth  and  seas  to  a  height  of  many  miles  and  surround 
the  whole  of  our  terraqueous  globe;  and  this  fact  will 
not  be  denied  by  philosophers,  even  by  those  who  may 
have  but  a  superficial  knowledge,  because  it  can  be 

28 


EARLY   EXPERIMENTS 

proven  by  exhausting,  if  not  all,  at  any  rate  the  greater 
part  of,  the  air  contained  in  a  glass  vessel,  which,  if 
weighed  before  and  after  the  air  has  been  exhausted, 
will  be  found  materially  reduced  in  weight.  Then  I 
found  out  how  much  the  air  weighed  in  itself  in  the 
following  manner.  I  procured  a  large  vessel  of  glass, 
whose  neck  could  be  closed  or  opened  by  means  of  a 
tap,  and  holding  it  open  I  warmed  it  over  a  fire,  so  that 
the  air  inside  it  becoming  rarified,  the  major  part  was 
forced  out;  then  quickly  shutting  the  tap  to  prevent 
the  re-entry  I  weighed  it;  which  done,  I  plunged  its 
neck  in  water,  resting  the  whole  of  the  vessel  on  the 
surface  of  the  water,  then  on  opening  the  tap  the  water 
rose  in  the  vessel  and  filled  the  greater  part  of  it.  I  lifted 
the  neck  out  of  the  water,  released  the  water  contained 
in  the  vessel,  and  measured  and  weighed  its  quantity 
and  density,  by  which  I  inferred  that  a  certain  quantity 
of  air  had  come  out  of  the  vessel  equal  in  bulk  to  the 
quantity  of  water  which  had  entered  to  refill  the  portion 
abandoned  by  the  air.  I  again  weighed  the  vessel,  after 
I  had  first  of  all  well  dried  it  free  of  all  moisture,  and  found 
it  weighed  one  ounce  more  whilst  it  was  full  of  air  than 
when  it  was  exhausted  of  the  greater  part,  so  that  what 
it  weighed  more  was  a  quantity  of  air  equal  in  volume 
to  the  water  which  took  its  place.  The  water  weighed 
640  ounces,  so  I  concluded  that  the  weight  of  air  com- 
pared with  that  of  water  was  i  to  640 — that  is  to  say, 
as  the  water  which  filled  the  vessel  weighed  640  ounces, 
so  the  air  which  filled  the  same  vessel  weighed  one 
ounce.' 

Having  thus  detailed  the  method  of  exhausting 
air  from  a  vessel,  Lana  goes  on  to  assume  that  any  large 
vessel  can  be  entirely  exhausted  of  nearly  all  the  air 

29 


A  HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

contained  therein.  Then  he  takes  Euclid's  proposition 
to  the  effect  that  the  superficial  area  of  globes  increases 
in  the  proportion  of  the  square  of  the  diameter,  whilst 
the  volume  increases  in  the  proportion  of  the  cube  of 
the  same  diameter,  and  he  considers  that  if  one  only 
constructs  the  globe  of  thin  metal,  of  sufficient  size, 
and  exhausts  the  air  in  the  manner  that  he  suggests, 
such  a  globe  will  be  so  far  lighter  than  the  surrounding 
atmosphere  that  it  will  not  only  rise,  but  will  be  capable 
of  lifting  weights.  Here  is  Lana's  own  way  of  putting 
it: — 

'  But  so  that  it  may  be  enabled  to  raise  heavier 
weights  and  to  lift  men  in  the  air,  let  us  take  double  the 
quantity  of  copper,  1,232  square  feet,  equal  to  308  Ibs. 
of  copper;  with  this  double  quantity  of  copper  we  could 
construct  a  vessel  of  not  only  double  the  capacity,  but 
of  four  times  the  capacity  of  the  first,  for  the  reason 
shown  by  my  fourth  supposition.  Consequently  the 
air  contained  in  such  a  vessel  will  be  718  Ibs.  4§  ounces, 
so  that  if  the  air  be  drawn  out  of  the  vessel  it  will  be  4 1  o 
Ibs.  4!  ounces  lighter  than  the  same  volume  of  air, 
and,  consequently,  will  be  enabled  to  lift  three  men,  or 
at  least  two,  should  they  weigh  more  than  eight  pesi 
each.  It  is  thus  manifest  that  the  larger  the  ball  or 
vessel  is  made,  the  thicker  and  more  solid  can  the  sheets 
of  copper  be  made,  because,  although  the  weight  will 
increase,  the  capacity  of  the  vessel  will  increase  to  a 
greater  extent  and  with  it  the  weight  of  the  air  therein, 
so  that  it  will  always  be  capable  to  lift  a  heavier  weight. 
From  this  it  can  be  easily  seen  how  it  is  possible  to 
construct  a  machine  which,  fashioned  like  unto  a  ship, 
will  float  on  the  air.' 

With  four  globes  of  these  dimensions  Lana  proposed 

30 


UCVO   METE.DO  D 

o  de 


A  suggestion  for  applying  hydrogen  gas  to  Lana's 
'Aerial  Ship.'      Rome,  1784. 

Jo  face  page  30 


EARLY   EXPERIMENTS 

to  make  an  aerial  ship  of  the  fashion  shown  in  his  quaint 
illustration.  He  is  careful  to  point  out  a  method  by 
which  the  supporting  globes  for  the  aerial  ship  may  be 
entirely  emptied  of  air;  this  is  to  be  done  by  connecting 
to  each  globe  a  tube  of  copper  which  is  *  at  least  a  length 
of  47  modern  Roman  palmi.'  A  small  tap  is  to  close 
this  tube  at  the  end  nearest  the  globe,  and  then  vessel 
and  tube  are  to  be  filled  with  water,  after  which  the 
tube  is  to  be  immersed  in  water  and  the  tap  opened, 
allowing  the  water  to  run  out  of  the  vessel,  while  no 
air  enters.  The  tap  is  then  closed  before  the  lower  end 
of  the  tube  is  removed  from  the  water,  leaving  no  air 
at  all  in  the  globe  or  sphere.  Propulsion  of  this  airship 
was  to  be  accomplished  by  means  of  sails,  and  also  by 
oars. 

Lana  antedated  the  modern  propeller,  and  realised 
that  the  air  would  offer  enough  resistance  to  oars  or 
paddle  to  impart  motion  to  any  vessel  floating  in  it  and 
propelled  by  these  means,  although  he  did  not  realise 
the  amount  of  pressure  on  the  air  which  would  be 
necessary  to  accomplish  propulsion.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  he  foresaw  and  provided  against  practically  all  the 
difficulties  that  would  be  encountered  in  the  working, 
as  well  as  the  making,  of  the  aerial  ship,  finally  coming 
up  against  what  his  religious  training  made  an  insuperable 
objection.  This,  again,  is  best  told  in  his  own  words: — 

'  Other  difficulties  I  do  not  foresee  that  could  prevail 
against  this  invention,  save  one  only,  which  to  me  seems 
the  greatest  of  them  all,  and  that  is  that  God  would 
surely  never  allow  such  a  machine  t£  be  successful, 
since  it  would  create  many  disturbances  in  the  civil  and 
political  governments  of  mankind.' 

He  ends  by  saying  that  no  city  would  be  proof 

31 


A  HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

against  surprise,  while  the  aerial  ship  could  set  fire  to 
vessels  at  sea,  and  destroy  houses,  fortresses,  and  cities 
by  fire  balls  and  bombs.  In  fact,  at  the  end  of  his 
treatise  on  the  subject,  he  furnishes  a  pretty  complete 
resume  of  the  activities  of  German  Zeppelins. 

As  already  noted,  Lana  himself,  owing  to  his  vows 
of  poverty,  was  unable  to  do  more  than  put  his  suggestions 
on  paper,  which  he  did  with  a  thoroughness  that  has 
procured  him  a  place  among  the  really  great  pioneers 
of  flying. 

It  was  nearly  200  years  before  any  attempt  was 
made  to  realise  his  project;  then,  in  1843,  M.  Marey 
Monge  set  out  to  make  the  globes  and  the  ship  as  Lana 
detailed  them.  Monge's  experiments  cost  him  the  sum 
of  25,000  francs  75  centimes,  which  he  expended  purely 
from  love  of  scientific  investigation.  He  chose  to  make 
his  globes  of  brass,  about  .004  in  thickness,  and  weighing 
1.465  Ibs.  to  the  square  yard.  Having  made  his  sphere 
of  this  metal,  he  lined  it  with  two  thicknesses  of  tissue 
paper,  varnished  it  with  oil,  and  set  to  work  to  empty  it 
of  air.  This,  however,  he  never  achieved,  for  such 
metal  is  incapable  of  sustaining  the  pressure  of  the  outside 
air,  as  Lana,  had  he  had  the  means  to  carry  out  experi- 
ments, would  have  ascertained.  M.  Monge's  sphere 
could  never  be  emptied  of  air  sufficiently  to  rise  from  the 
earth;  it  ended  in  the  melting-pot,  ignominiously 
enough,  and  all  that  Monge  got  from  his  experiment 
was  the  value  of  the  scrap  metal  and  the  satisfaction 
of  knowing  that  Lana's  theory  could  never  be  translated 
into  practice. 

Robert  Hooke  is  less  conspicuous  than  either  Borelli 
or  Lana;  his  work,  which  came  into  the  middle  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  consisted  of  various  experiments 

32 


EARLY   EXPERIMENTS 

with  regard  to  flight,  from  which  emerged  *  a  Module, 
which  by  the  help  of  Springs  and  Wings,  raised  and 
sustained  itself  in  the  air.'  This  must  be  reckoned  as 
the  first  model  flying  machine  which  actually  flew, 
except  for  da  Vinci's  helicopters;  Hooke's  model 
appears  to  have  been  of  the  flapping-wing  type — he 
attempted  to  copy  the  motion  of  birds,  but  found  from 
study  and  experiment  that  human  muscles  were  not 
sufficient  to  the  task  of  lifting  the  human  body.  For 
that  reason,  he  says,  '  I  applied  my  mind  to  contrive  a 
way  to  make  artificial  muscles,'  but  in  this  he  was,  as 
he  expresses  it,  *  frustrated  of  my  expectations/  Hooke's 
claim  to  fame  rests  mainly  on  his  successful  model;  the 
rest  of  his  work  is  of  too  scrappy  a  nature  to  rank  as  a 
serious  contribution  to  the  study  of  flight. 

Contemporary  with  Hooke  was  one  Allard,  who, 
in  France,  undertook  to  emulate  the  Saracen  of  Con- 
stantinople to  a  certain  extent.  Allard  was  a  tight-rope 
dancer  who  either  did  or  was  said  to  have  done  short 
gliding  flights — the  matter  is  open  to  question — and 
finally  stated  that  he  would,  at  St  Germains,  fly  from  the 
terrace  in  the  king's  presence.  He  made  the  attempt, 
but  merely  fell,  as  did  the  Saracen  some  centuries  before, 
causing  himself  serious  injury.  Allard  cannot  be 
regarded  as  a  contributor  to  the  development  of  aeron- 
autics in  any  way,  and  is  only  mentioned  as  typical  of 
the  way  in  which,  up  to  the  time  of  the  Wright  brothers, 
flying  was  regarded.  Even  unto  this  day  there  are 
many  who  still  believe  that,  with  a  pair  of  wings,  man 
ought  to  be  able  to  fly,  and  that  the  mathematical  data 
necessary  to  effective  construction  simply  do  not  exist. 
This  attitude  was  reasonable  enough  in  an  unlearned 
age,  and  Allard  was  one — a  little  more  conspicuous 

33 


A   HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

than  the  majority — among  many  who  made  experiment 
in  ignorance,  with  more  or  less  danger  to  themselves 
and  without  practical  result  of  any  kind. 

The  seventeenth  century  was  not  to  end,  however, 
without  practical  experiment  of  a  noteworthy  kind  in 
gliding  flight.  Among  the  recruits  to  the  ranks  of 
pioneers  was  a  certain  Besnier,  a  locksmith  of  Sable, 
who  somewhere  between  1675  and  1680  constructed 
a  glider  of  which  a  crude  picture  has  come  down  to 


Besnier's  Flying  Apparatus. 

modern  times.  The  apparatus,  as  will  be  seen,  consisted 
of  two  rods  with  hirged  flaps,  and  the  original  designer 
of  the  picture  seems  to  have  had  but  a  small  space  in 
which  to  draw,  since  obviously  the  flaps  must  have 
been  much  larger  than  those  shown.  Besnier  placed 
the  rods  on  his  shoulders,  and  worked  the  flaps  by 
cords  attached  to  his  hands  and  feet — the  flaps  opened 
as  they  fell,  and  closed  as  they  rose,  so  the  device  as  a 
whole  must  be  regarded  as  a  sort  of  flapping  glider. 
Having  by  experiment  proved  his  apparatus  successful, 

34 


EARLY   EXPERIMENTS 

Besnier  promptly  sold  it  to  a  travelling  showman  of 
the  period,  and  forthwith  set  about  constructing  a 
second  set,  with  which  he  made  gliding  flights  of 
considerable  height  and  distance.  Like  Lilienthal, 
Besnier  projected  himself  into  space  from  some  height, 
and  then,  according  to  the  contemporary  records,  he 
was  able  to  cross  a  river  of  considerable  size  before 
coming  to  earth.  It  does  not  appear  that  he  had  any 
imitators,  or  that  any  advantage  whatever  was  taken 
of  his  experiments;  the  age  was  one  in  which  he  would 
be  regarded  rather  as  a  freak  exhibitor  than  as  a  serious 
student,  and  possibly,  considering  his  origin  and  the 
sale  of  his  first  apparatus  to  such  a  client,  he  regarded 
the  matter  himself  as  more  in  the  nature  of  an  amusement 
than  as  a  discovery. 

Borelli,  coming  at  the  end  of  -  the  century,  proved 
to  his  own  satisfaction  and  that  of  his  fellows  that 
flapping  wing  flight  was  an  impossibility;  the  capabilities 
of  the  plane  were  as  yet  undreamed,  and  the  prime 
mover  that  should  make  the  plane  available  for  flight 
was  deep  in  the  womb  of  time.  Da  Vinci's  work  was 
forgotten — flight  was  an  impossibility,  or  at  best  such 
a  useless  show  as  Besnier  was  able  to  give. 

The  eighteenth  century  was  almost  barren  of 
experiment.  Emanuel  Swedenborg,  having  invented 
a  new  religion,  set  about  inventing  a  flying  machine, 
and  succeeded  theoretically,  publishing  the  result  of 
his  investigations  as  follows: — 

*  Let  a  car  or  boat  or  some  like  object  be  made  of 
light  material  such  as  cork  or  bark,  with  a  room  within 
it  for  the  operator.  Secondly,  in  front  as  well  as  behind, 
or  all  round,  set  a  widely-stretched  sail  parallel  to  the 
machine,  forming  within  a  hollow  or  bend,  which  could 

35 


A  HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

be  reefed  like  the  sails  of  a  ship.  Thirdly,  place  wings 
on  the  sides,  to  be  worked  up  and  down  by  a  spiral 
spring,  these  wings  also  to  be  hollow  below  in  order  to 
increase  the  force  and  velocity,  take  in  the  air,  and  make 
the  resistance  as  great  as  may  be  required.  These,  too, 
should  be  of  light  material  and  of  sufficient  size;  they 
should  be  in  the  shape  of  birds'  wings,  or  the  sails  of 
a  windmill,  or  some  such  shape,  and  should  be  tilted 
obliquely  upwards,  and  made  so  as  to  collapse  on  the 
upward  stroke  and  expand  on  the  downward.  Fourth, 
place  a  balance  or  beam  below,  hanging  down  perpen- 
dicularly for  some  distance  with  a  small  weight  attached 
to  its  end,  pendent  exactly  in  line  with  the  centre  of 
gravity;  the  longer  this  beam  is,  the  lighter  must  it  be, 
for  it  must  have  the  same  proportion  as  the  well-known 
vectis  or  steel-yard.  This  would  serve  to  restore  the 
balance  of  the  machine  if  it  should  lean  over  to  any  of 
the  four  sides.  Fifthly,  the  wings  would  perhaps  have 
greater  force,  so  as  to  increase  the  resistance  and  make 
the  flight  easier,  if  a  hood  or  shield  were  placed  over 
them,  as  is  the  case  with  certain  insects.  Sixthly,  when 
the  sails  are  expanded  so  as  to  occupy  a  great  surface 
and  much  air,  with  a  balance  keeping  them  horizontal, 
only  a  small  force  would  be  needed  to  move  the  machine 
back  and  forth  in  a  circle,  and  up  and  down.  And, 
after  it  has  gained  momentum  to  move  slowly  upwards, 
a  slight  movement  and  an  even  bearing  would  keep  it 
balanced  in  the  air  and  would  determine  its  direction 
at  will.' 

The  only  point  in  this  worthy  of  any  note  is  the 
first  device  for  maintaining  stability  automatically — 
Swedenborg  certainly  scored  a  point  there.  For  the 
rest,  his  theory  was  but  theory,  incapable  of  being  put 

36 


EARLY   EXPERIMENTS 

to  practice — he  does  not  appear  to  have  made  any 
attempt  at  advance  beyond  the  mere  suggestion. 

Some  ten  years  before  his  time  the  state  of  knowledge 
with  regard  to  flying  in  Europe  was  demonstrated  by 
an  order  granted  by  the  King  of  Portugal  to  Friar 
Lourenzo  de  Guzman,  who  claimed  to  have  invented 
a  flying  machine  capable  of  actual  flight.  The  order 
stated  that  *  In  order  to  encourage  the  suppliant  to 
apply  himself  with  zeal  toward  the  improvement  of  the 
new  machine,  which  is  capable  of  producing  the  effects 
mentioned  by  him,  I  grant  unto  him  the  first  vacant 
place  in  my  College  of  Barcelos  or  Santarem,  and  the 
first  professorship  of  mathematics  in  my  University 
of  Coimbra,  with  the  annual  pension  of  600,000  reis 
during  his  life. — Lisbon,  I7th  of  March,  1709.* 

What  happened  to  Guzman  when  the  non-existence 
of  the  machine  was  discovered  is  one  of  the  things  that 
is  well  outside  the  province  of  aeronautics.  He  was 
charlatan  pure  and  simple,  as  far  as  actual  flight  was 
concerned,  though  he  had  some  ideas  respecting  the 
design  of  hot-air  balloons,  according  to  Tissandier. 
(La  Navigation  Aerienne^)  His  flying  machine  was  to 
contain,  among  other  devices,  bellows  to  produce 
artificial  wind  when  the  real  article  failed,  and  also 
magnets  in  globes  to  draw  the  vessel  in  an  upward 
direction  and  maintain  its  buoyancy.  Some  draughts- 
man, apparently  gifted  with  as  vivid  imagination  as 
Guzman  himself,  has  given  to  the  world  an  illustration 
of  the  hypothetical  vessel;  it  bears  some  resemblance 
to  Lana's  aerial  ship,  from  which  fact  one  draws  obvious 
conclusions. 

A  rather  amusing  claim  to  solving  the  problem  of 
flight  was  made  in  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century 

37 


A  HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

by  one  Grimaldi,  a  *  famous  and  unique  Engineer ' 
who,  as  a  matter  of  actual  fact,  spent  twenty  years  in 
missionary  work  in  India,  and  employed  the  spare  time 
that  missionary  work  left  him  in  bringing  his  invention 
to  a  workable  state.  The  invention  is  described  as  a 
*  box  which  with  the  aid  of  clockwork  rises  in  the  air, 
and  goes  with  such  lightness  and  strong  rapidity  that 
it  succeeds  in  flying  a  journey  of  seven  leagues  in  an 
hour.  It  is  made  in  the  fashion  of  a  bird;  the  wings 
from  end  to  end  are  25  feet  in  extent.  The  body  is 
composed  of  cork,  artistically  joined  together  and  well 
fastened  with  metal  wire,  covered  with  parchment  and 
feathers.  The  wings  are  made  of  catgut  and  whalebone, 
and  covered  also  with  the  same  parchment  and  feathers, 
and  each  wing  is  folded  in  three  seams.  In  the  body 
of  the  machine  are  contained  thirty  wheels  of  unique 
work,  with  two  brass  globes  and  little  chains  which 
alternately  wind  up  a  counterpoise;  with  the  aid  of 
six  brass  vases,  full  of  a  certain  quantity  of  quicksilver, 
which  run  in  some  pulleys,  the  machine  is  kept  by  the 
artist  in  due  equilibrium  and  balance.  By  means, 
then,  of  the  friction  between  a  steel  wheel  adequately 
tempered  and  a  very  heavy  and  surprising  piece  of 
lodestone, '  the  whole  is  kept  in  a  regulated  forward 
movement,  given,  however,  a  right  state  of  the  winds, 
since  the  machine  cannot  fly  so  much  in  totally  calm 
weather  as  in  stormy.  This  prodigious  machine  is 
directed  and  guided  by  a  tail  seven  palmi  long,  which  is 
attached  to  the  knees  and  ankles  of  the  inventor  by 
leather  straps;  by  stretching  out  his  legs,  either  to  the 
right  or  to  the  left,  he  moves  the  machine  in  whichever 
direction  he  pleases.  .  .  .  The  machine's  flight  lasts 
only  three  hours,  after  which  the  wings  gradually  close 

38 


EARLY   EXPERIMENTS 

themselves,  when  the  inventor,  perceiving  this,  goes 
down  gently,  so  as  to  get  on  his  own  feet,  and  then 
winds  up  the  clockwork  and  gets  himself  ready  again 
upon  the  wings  for  the  continuation  of  a  new  flight. 
He  himself  told  us  that  if  by  chance  one  of  the  wheels 
came  off  or  if  one  of  the  wings  broke,  it  is  certain  he 
would  inevitably  fall  rapidly  to  the  ground,  and,  therefore, 
he  does  not  rise  more  than  the  height  of  a  tree  or  two, 
as  also  he  only  once  put  himself  in  the  risk  of  crossing 
the  sea,  and  that  was  from  Calais  to  Dover,  and  the 
same  morning  he  arrived  in  London.' 

And  yet  there  are  still  quite  a  number  of  people  who 
persist  in  stating  that  Bleriot  was  the  first  man  to  fly 
across  the  Channel! 

A  study  of  the  development  of  the  helicopter 
principle  was  published  in  France  in  1868,  when  the 
great  French  engineer  Paucton  produced  his  Theorie 
de  la  Vis  cC Ar chime de.  For  some  inexplicable  reason, 
Paucton  was  not  satisfied  with  the  term  '  helicopter,' 
but  preferred  to  call  it  a  *  pterophore,'  a  name  which, 
so  far  as  can  be  ascertained,  has  not  been  adopted  by 
any  other  writer  or  investigator.  Paucton  stated  that, 
since  a  man  is  capable  of  sufficient  force  to  overcome 
the  weight  of  his  own  body,  it  is  only  necessary  to  give 
him  a  machine  which  acts  on  the  air  *  with  all  the  force 
of  which  it  is  capable  and  at  its  utmost  speed,'  and  he 
will  then  be  able  to  lift  himself  in  the  air,  just  as  by  the 
exertion  of  all  his  strength  he  is  able  to  lift  himself  in 
water.  *  It  would  seem,'  says  Paucton,  *  that  in  the 
pterophore,  attached  vertically  to  a  carriage,  the  whole 
built  lightly  and  carefully  assembled,  he  has  found 
something  that  will  give  him  this  result  in  all  perfection. 
In  construction,  one  would  be  careful  that  the  machine 
H.A.  39  D 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

produced  the  least  friction  possible,  and  naturally  it 
ought  to  produce  little,  as  it  would  not  be  at  all  compli- 
cated. The  new  Daedalus,  sitting  comfortably  in  his 
carriage,  would  by  means  of  a  crank  give  to  the 
pte*rophore  a  suitable  circular  (or  revolving)  speed. 
This  single  pterophore  would  lift  him  vertically,  but 
in  order  to  move  horizontally  he  should  be  supplied 
with  a  tail  in  the  shape  of  another  pterophore.  When 
he  wished  to  stop  for  a  little  time,  valves  fixed  firmly 
across  the  end  of  the  space  between  the  blades  would 
automatically  close  the  openings  through  which  the 
air  flows,  and  change  the  pterophore  into  an  unbroken 
surface  which  would  resist  the  flow  of  air  and 
retard  the  fall  of  the  machine  to  a  considerable 
degree/ 

The  doctrine  thus  set  forth  might  appear  plausible, 
but  it  is  based  on  the  common  misconception  that  all 
the  force  which  might  be  put  into  the  helicopter  or 
'  pterophore  '  would  be  utilised  for  lifting  or  propelling 
the  vehicle  through  the  air,  just  as  a  propeller  uses  all 
its  power  to  drive  a  ship  through  water.  But,  in  applying 
such  a  propelling  force  to  the  air,  most  of  the  force  is 
utilised  in  maintaining  aerodynamic  support — as  a 
matter  of  fact,  more  force  is  needed  to  maintain  this 
support  than  the  muscle  of  man  could  possibly  furnish 
to  a  lifting  screw,  and  even  if  the  helicopter  were 
applied  to  a  full-sized,  engine-driven  air  vehicle,  the 
rate  of  ascent  would  depend  on  the  amount  of  surplus 
power  that  could  be  carried.  For  example,  an  upward 
lift  of  1,000  pounds  from  a  propeller  15  feet  in  diameter 
would  demand  an  expenditure  of  50  horse-power  under 
the  best  possible  conditions,  and  in  order  to  lift  this  load 
vertically  through  such  atmospheric  pressure  as  exists 

40 


EARLY   EXPERIMENTS 

at  sea-level  or  thereabouts,  an  additional  20  horse- 
power would  be  required  to  attain  a  rate  of  1 1  feet  per 
second — 50  horse-power  must  be  continually  provided 
for  the  mere  support  of  the  load,  and  the  additional 
20  horse-power  must  be  continually  provided  in 
order  to  lift  it.  Although,  in  model  form,  there  is 
nothing  quite  so  strikingly  successful  as  the  helicopter 
in  the  range  of  flying  machines,  yet  the  essential  weight 
increases  so  disproportionately  to  the  effective  area  that 
it  is  necessary  to  go  but  very  little  beyond  model 
dimensions  for  the  helicopter  to  become  quite  ineffective. 

That  is  not  to  say  that  the  lifting  screw  must  be 
totally  ruled  out  so  far  as  the  construction  of  aircraft  is 
concerned.  Much  is  still  empirical,  so  far  as  this  branch 
of  aeronautics  is  concerned,  and  consideration  of  the 
structural  features  of  a  propeller  goes  to  show  that  the 
relations  of  essential  weight  and  effective  area  do  not 
altogether  apply  in  practice  as  they  stand  in  theory. 
Paucton's  dream,  in  some  modified  form,  may  yet 
become  reality — it  is  only  so  short  a  time  ago  as  1896 
that  Lord  Kelvin  stated  he  had  not  the  smallest  molecule 
of  faith  in  aerial  navigation,  and  since  the  whole 
history  of  flight  consists  in  proving  the  impossible 
possible,  the  helicopter  may  yet  challenge  the  propelled 
plane  surface  for  aerial  supremacy. 

It  does  not  appear  that  Paucton  went  beyond  theory, 
nor  is  there  in  his  theory  any  advance  toward  practical 
flight — da  Vinci  could  have  told  him  as  much  as  he 
knew.  He  was  followed  by  Meerwein,  who  invented 
an  apparatus  apparently  something  between  a  flapping 
wing  machine  and  a  glider,  consisting  of  two  wings, 
which  were  to  be  operated  by  means  of  a  rod;  the 
venturesome  one  who  would  fly  by  means  of  this 


A  HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

apparatus  had  to  lie  in  a  horizontal  position  beneath 
the  wings  to  work  the  rod.  Meerwein  deserves  a  place 
of  mention,  however,  by  reason  of  his  investigations 
into  the  amount  of  surface  necessary  to  support  a  given 
weight.  Taking  that  weight  at  200  pounds — which 
would  allow  for  the  weight  of  a  man  and  a  very  light 
apparatus — he  estimated  that  126  square  feet  would 
be  necessary  for  support.  His  pamphlet,  published  at 
Basle  in  1784,  shows  him  to  have  been  a  painstaking 
student  of  the  potentialities  of  flight. 

Jean-Pierre  Blanchard,  later  to  acquire  fame  in 
connection  with  balloon  flight,  conceived  and  described 
a  curious  vehicle,  of  which  he  even  announced  trials  as 
impending.  His  trials  were  postponed  time  after  time, 
and  it  appears  that  he  became  convinced  in  the  end  of 
the  futility  of  his  device,  being  assisted  to  such  a  con- 
clusion by  Lalande,  the  astronomer,  who  repeated 
Borelli's  statement  that  it  was  impossible  for  man  ever 
to  fly  by  his  own  strength.  This  was  in  the  closing 
days  of  the  French  monarchy,  and  the  ascent  of  the 
Mongolfiers'  first  hot-air  balloon  in  1783 — which  shall 
be  told  more  fully  in  its  place — put  an  end  to  all  French 
experiments  with  heavier-than-air  apparatus,  though 
in  England  the  genius  of  Cayley  was  about  to  bud,  and 
even  in  France  there  were  those  who  understood  that 
ballooning  was  not  true  flight. 


Ill 

SIR    GEORGE    CAYLEY THOMAS    WALKER 

ON  the  fifth  of  June,  1783,  the  Montgolfiers*  hot-air 
balloon  rose  at  Versailles,  and  in  its  rising  divided  the 
study  of  the  conquest  of  the  air  into  two  definite  parts, 
the  one  being  concerned  with  the  propulsion  of  gas 
lifted,  lighter-than-air  vehicles,  and  the  other  being 
crystallised  in  one  sentence  by  Sir  George  Cayley: 
'  The  whole  problem,'  he  stated,  '  is  confined  within 
these  limits,  viz.:  to  make  a  surface  support  a  given 
weight  by  the  application  of  power  to  the  resistance  of 
the  air/  For  about  ten  years  the  balloon  held  the  field 
entirely,  being  regarded  as  the  only  solution  of  the 
problem  of  flight  that  man  could  ever  compass.  So 
definite  for  a  time  was  this  view  on  the  eastern  side  of 
the  Channel  that  for  some  years  practically  all  the 
progress  that  was  made  in  the  development  of  power- 
driven  planes  was  made  in  Britain. 

In  1800  a  certain  Dr  Thomas  Young  demonstrated 
that  certain  curved  surfaces  suspended  by  a  thread 
moved  into  and  not  away  from  a  horizontal  current  of 
air,  but  the  demonstration,  which  approaches  perilously 
near  to  perpetual  motion  if  the  current  be  truly  horizontal, 
has  never  been  successfully  repeated,  so  that  there  is 
more  than  a  suspicion  that  Young's  air-current  was  not 
horizontal.  Others  had  made  and  were  making  experi- 
ments on  the  resistance  offered  to  the  air  by  flat  surfaces, 

43 


A  HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

when  Cayley  came  to  study  and  record,  earning  such 
a  place  among  the  pioneers  as  to  win  the  title  of  '  father 
of  British  aeronautics.' 

Cayley  was  a  man  in  advance  of  his  time,  in  many 
ways.  Of  independent  means,  he  made  the  grand  tour 
which  was  considered  necessary  to  the  education  of 
every  young  man  of  position,  and  during  this  excursion 
he  was  more  engaged  in  studies  of  a  semi-scientific 
character  than  in  the  pursuits  that  normally  filled  such 
a  period.  His  various  writings  prove  that  throughout 
his  life  aeronautics  was  the  foremost  subject  in  his 
mind;  the  Mechanic's  Magazine,  Nicholsons  Journal, 
the  Philosophical  Magazine,  and  other  periodicals  of 
like  nature  bear  witness  to  Cayley's  continued  research 
into  the  subject  of  flight.  He  approached  the  subject 
after  the  manner  of  the  trained  scientist,  analysing  the 
mechanical  properties  of  air  under  chemical  and  physical 
action.  Then  he  set  to  work  to  ascertain  the  power 
necessary  for  aerial  flight,  and  was  one  of  the  first  to 
enunciate  the  fallacy  of  the  hopes  of  successful  flight 
by  means  of  the  steam  engine  of  those  days,  owing  to 
the  fact  that  it  was  impossible  to  obtain  a  given  power 
with  a  given  weight. 

Yet  his  conclusions  on  this  point  were  not  altogether 
negative,  for  as  early  as  1810  he  stated  that  he  could 
construct  a  balloon  which  could  travel  with  passengers 
at  20  miles  an  hour — he  was  one  of  the  first  to  consider 
the  possibilities  of  applying  power  to  a  balloon.  Nearly 
thirty  years  later — in  1837 — he  made  the  first  attempt 
at  establishing  an  aeronautical  society,  but  at  that  time 
the  power-driven  plane  was  regarded  by  the  great 
majority  as  an  absurd  dream  of  more  or  less  mad 
inventors,  while  ballooning  ranked  on  about  the  same 

44 


SIR  GEORGE  CAYLEY— THOMAS  WALKER 

level  as  tight-rope  walking,  being  considered  an  adjunct 
to  fairs  and  fetes,  more  a  pastime  than  a  study. 

Up  to  the  time  of  his  death,  in  1857,  Cayley  main- 
tained his  study  of  aeronautical  matters,  and  there  is  no 
doubt  whatever  that  his  work  went  far  in  assisting  the 
solution  of  the  problem  of  air  conquest.  His  principal 
published  work,  a  monograph  entitled  Aerial  Navigation, 
has  been  republished  in  the  admirable  series  of 
'  Aeronautical  Classics'  issued  by  the  Royal  Aeronautical 
Society.  He  began  this  work  by  pointing  out  the 
impossibility  of  flying  by  means  of  attached  wings,  an 
impossibility  due  to  the  fact  that,  while  the  pectoral 
muscles  of  a  bird  account  for  more  than  two-thirds  of 
its  whole  muscular  strength,  in  a  man  the  muscles 
available  for  flying,  no  matter  what  mechanism  might 
be  used,  would  not  exceed  one-tenth  of  his  total 
strength. 

Cayley  did  not  actually  deny  the  possibility  of  a 
man  flying  by  muscular  effort,  however,  but  stated  that 
'  the  flight  of  a  strong  man  by  great  muscular  exertion, 
though  a  curious  and  interesting  circumstance,  inasmuch 
as  it  will  probably  be  the  means  of  ascertaining  this 
power  and  supplying  the  basis  whereon  to  improve  it, 
would  be  of  little  use.' 

From  this  he  goes  on  to  the  possibility  of  using  a 
Boulton  and  Watt  steam  engine  to  develop  the  power 
necessary  for  flight,  and  in  this  he  saw  a  possibility  of 
practical  result.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  in  this  con- 
nection he  made  mention  of  the  forerunner  of  the  modern 
internal  combustion  engine;  '  The  French/  he  said, 
'  have  lately  shown  the  great  power  produced  by  igniting 
inflammable  powders  in  closed  vessels,  and  several 
years  ago  an  engine  was  made  to  work  in  this  country 

45 


A   HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

in  a  similar  manner  by  inflammation  of  spirit  of  tar.' 
In  a  subsequent  paragraph  of  his  monograph  he 
anticipates  almost  exactly  the  construction  of  the  Lenoir 
gas  engine,  which  came  into  being  more  than  fifty-five 
years  after  his  monograph  was  published. 

Certain  experiments  detailed  in  his  work  were  made 
to  ascertain  the  size  of  the  surface  necessary  for  the 
support  of  any  given  weight.  He  accepted  a  truism 
of  to-day  in  pointing  out  that  in  any  matters  connected 
with  aerial  investigation,  theory  and  practice  are  as 
widely  apart  as  the  poles.  Inclined  at  first  to  favour 
the  helicopter  principle,  he  finally  rejected  this  in  favour 
of  the  plane,  with  which  he  made  numerous  experiments. 
During  these,  he  ascertained  the  peculiar  advantages 
of  curved  surfaces,  and  saw  the  necessity  of  providing 
both  vertical  and  horizontal  rudders  in  order  to  admit 
of  side  steering  as  well  as  the  control  of  ascent  and 
descent,  and  for  preserving  equilibrium.  He  may  be 
said  to  have  anticipated  the  work  of  Lilienthal  and 
Pilcher,  since  he  constructed  and  experimented  with 
a  fixed  surface  glider.  '  It  was  beautiful,'  he  wrote 
concerning  this,  *  to  see  this  noble  white  bird  sailing 
majestically  from  the  top  of  a  hill  to  any  given  point  of 
the  plain  below  it  with  perfect  steadiness  and  safety, 
according  to  the  set  of  its  rudder,  merely  by  its  own 
weight,  descending  at  an  angle  of  about  eight  degrees 
with  the  horizon/ 

It  is  said  that  he  once  persuaded  his  gardener  to 
trust  himself  in  this  glider  for  a  flight,  but  if  Cayley 
himself  ventured  a  flight  in  it  he  has  left  no  record  of 
the  fact.  The  following  extract  from  his  work,  Aerial 
Navigation^  affords  an  instance  of  the  thoroughness  of 
his  investigations,  and  the  concluding  paragraph  also 

46 


Sir  George  Caley,  Bart. 
The  Father  of  British  Aeronautics.' 

To  face  page  46 


SIR  GEORGE  CAYLEY— THOMAS  WALKER 

shows  his  faith  in  the  ultimate  triumph  of  mankind  in 
the  matter  of  aerial  flight : — 

'  The  act  of  flying  requires  less  exertion  than  from 
the  appearance  is  supposed.  Not  having  sufficient  data 
to  ascertain  the  exact  degree  of  propelling  power  exerted 
by  birds  in  the  act  of  flying,  it  is  uncertain  what  degree 
of  energy  may  be  required  in  this  respect  for  vessels  of 
aerial  navigation;  yet  when  we  consider  the  many 
hundreds  of  miles  of  continued  flight  exerted  by  birds 
of  passage,  the  idea  of  its  being  only  a  small  effort  is 
greatly  corroborated.  To  apply  the  power  of  the  first 
mover  to  the  greatest  advantage  in  producing  this 
effect  is  a  very  material  point.  The  mode  universally 
adopted  by  Nature  is  the  oblique  waft  of  the  wing. 
We  have  only  to  choose  between  the  direct  beat  over- 
taking the  velocity  of  the  current,  like  the  oar  of  a  boat, 
or  one  applied  like  the  wing,  in  some  assigned  degree 
of  obliquity  to  it.  Suppose  35  feet  per  second  to  be 
the  velocity  of  an  aerial  vehicle,  the  oar  must  be  moved 
with  this  speed  previous  to  its  being  able  to  receive 
any  resistance;  then  if  it  be  only  required  to  obtain  a 
pressure  of  one-tenth  of  a  Ib.  upon  each  square  foot  it 
must  exceed  the  velocity  of  the  current  7.3  feet  per 
second.  Hence  its  whole  velocity  must  be  42.5  feet 
per  second.  Should  the  same  surface  be  wafted  down- 
ward like  a  wing  with  the  hinder  edge  inclined  upward 
in  an  angle  of  about  50  deg.  40  feet  to  the  current  it 
will  overtake  it  at  a  velocity  of  3.5  feet  per  second;  and 
as  a  slight  unknown  angle  of  resistance  generates  a  Ib. 
pressure  per  square  foot  at  this  velocity,  probably  a  waft 
of  a  little  more  than  4  feet  per  second  would  produce 
this  effect,  one-tenth  part  of  which  would  be  the  pro- 
pelling power.  The  advantage  of  this  mode  of 

47 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

application  compared  with  the  former  is  rather  more 
than  ten  to  one. 

*  In  continuing  the  general  principles  of  aerial 
navigation,  for  the  practice  of  the  art,  many  mechanical 
difficulties  present  themselves  which  require  a  consider- 
able course  of  skilfully  applied  experiments  before 
they  can  be  overcome;  but,  to  a  certain  extent,  the  air 
has  already  been  made  navigable,  and  no  one  who  has 
seen  the  steadiness  with  which  weights  to  the  amount 
of  ten  stone  (including  four  stone,  the  weight  of  the 
machine)  hover  in  the  air  can  doubt  of  the  ultimate 
accomplishment  of  this  object/ 

This  extract  from  his  work  gives  but  a  faint  idea 
of  the  amount  of  research  for  which  Cayley  was  respon- 
sible. He  had  the  humility  of  the  true  investigator  in 
scientific  problems,  and  so  far  as  can  be  seen  was  never 
guilty  of  the  great  fault  of  so  many  investigators  in  this 
subject — that  of  making  claims  which  he  could  not 
support.  He  was  content  to  do,  and  pass  after  having 
recorded  his  part,  and  although  nearly  half  a  century 
had  to  pass  between  the  time  of  his  death  and  the  first 
actual  flight  by  means  of  power-driven  planes,  yet  he 
may  be  said  to  have  contributed  very  largely  to  the 
solution  of  the  problem,  and  his  name  will  always  rank 
high  in  the  roll  of  the  pioneers  of  flight. 

Practically  contemporary  with  Cayley  was  Thomas 
Walker,  concerning  whom  little  is  known  save  that  he 
was  a  portrait  painter  of  Hull,  where  was  published  his 
pamphlet  on  The  Art  of  Flying  in  1 8 1  o,  a  second  and 
amplified  edition  being  produced,  also  in  Hull,  in  1831. 
The  pamphlet,  which  has  been  reproduced  in  extenso 
in  the  Aeronautical  Classics  series  published  by  the 
Royal  Aeronautical  Society,  displays  a  curious  mixture 


SIR  GEORGE  CAYLEY— THOMAS  WALKER 

of  the  true  scientific  spirit  and  colossal  conceit.  Walker 
appears  to  have  been  a  man  inclined  to  jump  to  con- 
clusions, which  carried  him  up  to  the  edge  of  discovery 
and  left  him  vacillating  there. 

The  study  of  the  two  editions  of  his  pamphlet  side  by 
side  shows  that  their  author  made  considerable  advances 
in  the  practicability  of  his  designs  in  the  21  intervenirg 
years,  though  the  drawings  which  accompany  the  text 
in  both  editions  fail  to  show  anything  really  capable  of 
flight.  The  great  point  about  Walker's  work  as  a  whole 
is  its  suggestiveness;  he  did  not  hesitate  to  state  that 
the  *  art '  of  flying  is  as  truly  mechanical  as  that  of 
rowing  a  boat,  and  he  had  some  conception  of  the 
necessary  mechanism,  together  with  an  absolute  convic- 
tion that  he  knew  all  there  was  to  be  known.  *  Encouraged 
by  the  public,'  he  says,  *  I  would  not  abandon  my  purpose 
of  making  still  further  exertions  to  advance  and  complete 
an  art,  the  discovery  of  the  true  -principles  (the  italics 
are  Walker's  own)  of  which,  I  trust,  I  can  with  certainty 
affirm  to  be  my  own.' 

The  pamphlet  begins  with  Walker's  admiration 
of  the  mechanism  of  flight  as  displayed  by  birds.  '  It 
is  now  almost  twenty  years,'  he  says,  *  since  I  was  first 
led  to  think,  by  the  study  of  birds  and  their  means  of 
flying,  that  if  an  artificial  machine  were  formed  with 
wings  in  exact  imitation  of  the  mechanism  of  one  of 
those  beautiful  living  machines,  and  applied  in  the 
very  same  way  upon  the  air,  there  could  be  no  doubt 
of  its  being  made  to  fly,  for  it  is  an  axiom  in  philosophy 
that  the  same  cause  will  ever  produce  the  same  effect.' 
With  this  he  confesses  his  inability  to  produce  the 
said  effect  through  lack  of  funds,  though  he  clothes 
this  delicately  in  the  phrase  *  professional  avocations 

49 


A  HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

and  other  circumstances/  Owing  to  this  inability  he 
published  his  designs  that  others  might  take  advantage 
of  them,  prefacing  his  own  researches  with  a  list  of  the 
very  early  pioneers,  and  giving  special  mention  to 
Friar  Bacon,  Bishop  Wilkins,  and  the  Portuguese  friar, 
De  Guzman.  But,  although  he  seems  to  suggest  that 
others  should  avail  themselves  of  his  theoretical  know- 
ledge, there  is  a  curious  incompleteness  about  the 
designs  accompanying  his  work,  and  about  the  work 
itself,  which  seems  to  suggest  that  he  had  more  know- 
ledge to  impart  than  he  chose  to  make  public — or  else 
that  he  came  very  near  to  complete  solution  of  the 
problem  of  flight,  and  stayed  on  the  threshold  without 
knowing  it. 

After  a  dissertation  upon  the  history  and  strength 
of  the  condor,  and  on  the  differences  between  the  weights 
of  birds,  he  says :  *  The  following  observations  upon 
the  wonderful  difference  in  the  weight  of  some  birds, 
with  their  apparent  means  of  supporting  it  in  their 
flight,  may  tend  to  remove  some  prejudices  against  my 
plan  from  the  minds  of  some  of  my  readers.  The 
weight  of  the  humming-bird  is  one  drachm,  that  of  the 
condor  not  less  than  four  stone.  Now,  if  we  reduce 
four  stone  into  drachms  we  shall  find  the  condor  is 
14,336  times  as  heavy  as  the  humming-bird.  What  an 
amazing  disproportion  of  weight!  Yet  by  the  same 
mechanical  use  of  its  wings  the  condor  can  overcome 
the  specific  gravity  of  its  body  with  as  much  ease  as  the 
little  humming-bird.  But  this  is  not  all.  We  are 
informed  that  this  enormous  bird  possesses  a  power  in 
its  wings,  so  far  exceeding  what  is  necessary  for  its  own 
conveyance  through  the  air,  that  it  can  take  up  and  fly 
away  with  a  whole  sheep  in  its  talons,  with  as  much 

50 


SIR  GEORGE  C A YLEY— THOMAS  WALKER 

case  as  an  eagle  would  carry  off,  in  the  same  manner, 
a  hare  or  a  rabbit.  This  we  may  readily  give  credit  to, 
from  the  known  fact  of  our  little  kestrel  and  the  sparrow- 
hawk  frequently  flying  off  with  a  partridge,  which  is 
nearly  three  times  the  weight  of  these  rapacious  little 
birds.' 

After  a  few  more  observations  he  arrives  at  the 
following  conclusion:  *  By  attending  to  the  progressive 
increase  in  the  weight  of  birds.,  from  the  delicate  little 
humming-bird  up  to  the  huge  condor,  we  clearly  discover 
that  the  addition  of  a  few  ounces,  pounds,  or  stones, 
is  no  obstacle  to  the  art  of  flying;  the  specific  weight 
of  birds  avails  nothing,  for  by  their  possessing  wings 
large  enough,  and  sufficient  power  to  work  them,  they 
can  accomplish  the  means  of  flying  equally  well  upon  all 
the  various  scales  and  dimensions  which  we  see  in 
nature.  Such  being  a  fact,  in  the  name  of  reason  and 
philosophy  why  shall  not  man,  with  a  pair  of  artificial 
wings,  large  enough,  and  with  sufficient  power  to  strike 
them  upon  the  air,  be  able  to  produce  the  same  effect  ?  ' 

Walker  asserted  definitely  and  with  good  ground 
that  muscular  effort  applied  without  mechanism  is 
insufficient  for  human  flight, /out  he  states  that  if  an 
aeronautical  boat  were  constructed  so  that  a  man  could 
sit  in  it  in  the  same  manner  as  when  rowing,  such  a  man 
would  be  able  to  bring  into  play  his  whole  bodily  strength 
for  the  purpose  of  flight,  and  at  the  same  time  would  be 
able  to  get  an  additional  advantage  by  exerting  his 
strength  upon  a  lever.  At  first  he  concluded  there 
must  be  expansion  of  wings  large  enough  to  resist  in 
a  sufficient  degree  the  specific  gravity  of  whatever  is 
attached  to  them,  but  in  the  second  edition  of  his  work 
he  altered  this  to  *  expansion  of  flat  passive  surfaces 

51 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

large  enough  to  reduce  the  force  of  gravity  so  as  to 
float  the  machine  upon  the  air  with  the  man  in  it.'  The 
second  requisite  is  strength  enough  to  strike  the  wings 
with  sufficient  force  to  complete  the  buoyancy  and 
give  a  projectile  motion  to  the  machine.  Given  these 
two  requisites,  Walker  states  definitely  that  flying  must 
be  accomplished  simply  by  muscular  exertion.  '  If  we 
are  secure  of  these  two  requisites,  and  I  am  very  confident 
we  are,  we  may  calculate  upon  the  success  of  flight 
with  as  much  certainty  as  upon  our  walking/ 

Walker  appears  to  have  gained  some  confidence 
from  the  experiments  of  a  certain  M.  Degen,  a  watch- 
maker of  Vienna,  who,  according  to  the  Monthly 
Magazine  of  September,  1809,  invented  a  machine  by 
means  of  which  a  person  might  raise  himself  into  the 
air.  The  said  machine,  according  to  the  magazine, 
was  formed  of  two  parachutes  which  might  be  folded 
up  or  extended  at  pleasure,  while  the  person  who 
worked  them  was  placed  in  the  centre.  This  account, 
however,  was  rather  misleading,  for  the  magazine 
carefully  avoided  mention  of  a  balloon  to  which  the 
inventor  fixed  his  wings  or  parachutes.  Walker, 
knowing  nothing  of  the  balloon,  concluded  that  Degen 
actually  raised  himself  in  the  air,  though  he  is  doubtful 
of  the  assertion  that  Degen  managed  to  fly  in  various 
directions,  especially  against  the  wind. 

Walker,  after  considering  Degen  and  all  his  works, 
proceeds  to  detail  his  own  directions  for  the  construction 
of  a  flying  machine,  these  being  as  follows:  *  Make  a 
car  of  as  light  material  as  possible,  but  with  sufficient 
strength  to  support  a  man  in  it;  provide  a  pair  of  wings 
about  four  feet  each  in  length;  let  them  be  horizontally 
expanded  and  fastened  upon  the  top  edge  of  each  side 


SIR  GEORGE  CAYLEY— THOMAS  WALKER 

of  the  car,  with  two  joints  each,  so  as  to  admit  of  a  vertical 
motion  to  the  wings,  which  motion  may  be  effected 
by  a  man  sitting  and  working  an  upright  lever  in  the 
middle  of  the  car.  Extend  in  the  front  of  the  car  a 
flat  surface  of  silk,  which  must  be  stretched  out  and 
kept  fixed  in  a  passive  state;  there  must  be  the  same 
fixed  behind  the  car;  these  two  surfaces  must  be 
perfectly  equal  in  length  and  breadth  and  large  enough 
to  cover  a  sufficient  quantity  of  air  to  support  the  whole 
weight  as  nearly  in  equilibrium  as  possible,  thus  we 
shall  have  a  great  sustaining  power  in  those  passive 
surfaces  and  the  active  wings  will  propel  the  car  forward.' 
A  description  of  how  to  launch  this  car  is  subsequently 
given:  *  It  becomes  necessary/  says  the  theorist,  *  that 
I  should  give  directions  how  it  may  be  launched  upon 
the  air,  which  may  be  done  by  various  means;  perhaps 
the  following  method  may  be  found  to  answer  as  well 
as  any:  Fix  a  poll  upright  in  the  earth,  about  twenty 
feet  in  height,  with  two  open  collars  to  admit  another 
poll  to  slide  upwards  through  them;  let  there  be  a  sliding 
platform  made  fast  upon  the  top  of  the  sliding  poll; 
place  the  car  with  a  man  in  it  upon  the  platform,  then 
raise  the  platform  to  the  height  of  about  thirty  feet 
by  means  of  the  sliding  poll,  let  the  sliding  poll  and 
platform  suddenly  fall  down,  the  car  will  then  be  left 
upon  the  air,  and  by  its  pressing  the  air  a  projectile 
force  will  instantly  propel  the  car  forward;  the  man  in 
the  car  must  then  strike  the  active  wings  briskly  upon 
the  air,  which  will  so  increase  the  projectile  force  as 
to  become  superior  to  the  force  of  gravitation,  and  if 
he  inclines  his  weight  a  little  backward,  the  projectile 
impulse  will  drive  the  car  forward  in  an  ascending 
direction.  When  the  car  is  brought  to  a  sufficient 

53 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

altitude  to  clear  the  tops  of  hills,  trees,  buildings,  etc., 
the  man,  by  sitting  a  little  forward  on  his  seat,  will  then 
bring  the  wings  upon  a  horizontal  plane,  and  by  con- 
tinuing the  action  of  the  wings  he  will  be  impelled 
forward  in  that  direction.  To  descend,  he  must  desist 
from  striking  the  wings,  and  hold  them  on  a  level  with 
their  joints;  the  car  will  then  gradually  come  down, 
and  when  it  is  within  five  or  six  feet  of  the  ground  the 
man  must  instantly  strike  the  wings  downwards,  and 
sit  as  far  back  as  he  can;  he  will  by  this  means  check  the 
projectile  force,  and  cause  the  car  to  alight  very  gently 
with  a  retrograde  motion.  The  car,  when  up  in  the 
air,  may  be  made  to  turn  to  the  right  or  to  the  left  by 
forcing  out  one  of  the  fins,  having  one  about  eighteen 
inches  long  placed  vertically  on  each  side  of  the  car  for 
that  purpose,  or  perhaps  merely  by  the  man  inclining 
the  weight  of  his  body  to  one  side/ 

Having  stated  how  the  thing  is  to  be  done,  Walker 
is  careful  to  explain  that  when  it  is  done  there  will  be 
in  it  some  practical  use,  notably  in  respect  of  the  con- 
veyance of  mails  and  newspapers,  or  the  saving  of  life 
at  sea,  or  for  exploration,  etc.  It  might  even  reduce 
the  number  of  horses  kept  by  man  for  his  use,  by  means 
of  which  a  large  amount  of  land  might  be  set  free  for 
the  growth  of  food  for  human  consumption. 

At  the  end  of  his  work  Walker  admits  the  idea  of 
steam  power  for  driving  a  flying  machine  in  place  of 
simple  human  exertion,  but  he,  like  Cayley,  saw  a 
drawback  to  this  in  the  weight  of  the  necessary  engine. 
On  the  whole,  he  concluded,  navigation  of  the  air  by 
means  of  engine  power  would  be  mostly  confined  to 
the  construction  of  navigable  balloons. 

As  already  noted,  Walker's  work  is  not  over  practical, 

54 


SIR  GEORGE  CAYLEY— THOMAS  WALKER 

and  the  foregoing  extract  includes  the  most  practical 
part  of  it;  the  rest  is  a  series  of  dissertations  on  bird 
flight,  in  which,  evidently,  the  portrait  painter's 
observations  were  far  less  thorough  than  those  of  da 
Vinci  or  Borelli.  Taken  on  the  whole,  Walker  was  a 
man  with  a  hobby;  he  devoted  to  it  much  time  and 
thought,  but  it  remained  a  hobby,  nevertheless.  His 
observations  have  proved  useful  enough  to  give  him  a 
place  among  the  early  students  of  flight,  but  a  great 
drawback  to  his  work  is  the  lack  of  practical  experiment, 
by  means  of  which  alone  real  advance  could  be  made; 
for,  as  Cayley  admitted,  theory  and  practice  are  very 
widely  separated  in  the  study  of  aviation,  and  the  whole 
history  of  flight  is  a  matter  of  unexpected  results  arising 
from  scarcely  foreseen  causes,  together  with  experiment 
as  patient  as  daring. 


H.A. 


IV 

THE    MIDDLE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

BOTH  Cayley  and  Walker  were  theorists,  though  Cayley 
supported  his  theoretical  work  with  enough  of  practice 
to  show  that  he  studied  along  right  lines;  a  little  after 
his  time  there  came  practical  men  who  brought  to  being 
the  first  machine  which  actually  flew  by  the  application 
of  power.  Before  their  time,  however,  mention  must 
be  made  of  the  work  of  George  Pocock  of  Bristol,  who, 
somewhere  about  1840,  invented"  what  was  described 
as  a  *  kite  carriage,'  a  vehicle  which  carried  a  number 
of  persons,  and  obtained  its  motive  power  from  a  large 
kite.  It  is  on  record  that,  in  the  year  1846,  one  of  these 
carriages  conveyed  sixteen  people  from  Bristol  to 
London.  Another  device  of  Pocock's  was  what  he 
called  a  *  buoyant  sail,'  which  was  in  effect  a  man- 
lifting  kite,  and  by  means  of  which  a  passenger  was 
actually  raised  100  yards  from  the  ground,  while  the 
inventor's  son  scaled  a  cliff  200  feet  in  height  by  means 
of  one  of  these  '  buoyant  sails.'  This  constitutes  the 
first  definitely  recorded  experiment  in  the  use  of  man- 
lifting  kites.  A  History  of  the  Charvolant  or  Kite- 
Carriage^  published  in  London  in  1851,  states  that  *  an 
experiment  of  a  bold  and  very  novel  character  was 
made  upon  an  extensive  down,  where  a  large  wagon 
with  a  considerable  load  was  drawn  along,  whilst  this 
huge  machine  at  the  same  time  carried  an  observer 

56 


THE  MIDDLE  NINETEENTH  CENtURY 

aloft    in    the    air,    realising    almost     the     romance    of 
flying. 

Experimenting,  two  years  after  the  appearance  of 
the  *  kite-carriage/  on  the  helicopter  principle,  W.  H. 
Phillips  constructed  a  model  machine  which  weighed 
two  pounds;  this  was  fitted  with  revolving  fans,  driven 
by  the  combustion  of  charcoal,  nitre,  and  gypsum, 
producing  steam  which,  discharging  into  the  air, 
caused  the  fans  to  revolve.  The  inventor  stated  that 
*  all  being  arranged,  the  steam  was  up  in  a  few  seconds, 
when  the  whole  apparatus  spun  around  like  any  top, 
and  mounted  into  the  air  faster  than  a  bird;  to  what 
height  it  ascended  I  had  no  means  of  ascertaining;  the 
distance  travelled  was  across  two  fields,  where,  after  a 
long  search,  I  found  the  machine  minus  the  wings, 
which  had  been  torn  off  in  contact  with  the  ground/ 
This  could  hardly  be  described  as  successful  flight, 
but  it  was  an  advance  in  the  construction  of  machines 
on  the  helicopter  principle,  and  it  was  the  first  steam- 
driven  model  of  the  type  which  actually  flew.  The 
invention,  however,  was  not  followed  up. 

After  Phillips,  we  come  to  the  great  figures  of  the 
middle  nineteenth  century,  W.  S.  Henson  and  John 
Stringfellow.  Cayley  had  shown,  in  1809,  how  success 
might  be  attained  by  developing  the  idea  of  the  plane 
surface  so  driven  as  to  take  advantage  of  the  resistance 
offered  by  the  air,  and  Henson,  who  as  early  as  1840 
was  experimenting  with  model  gliders  and  light  steam 
engines,  evolved  and  patented  an  idea  for  something 
very  nearly  resembling  the  monoplane  of  the  early 
twentieth  century.  His  patent,  No.  9478,  of  the  year 
1842,  explains  the  principle  of  the  machine  as  follows: — 

*  In  order  that  the  description  hereafter  given  may 

57 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

be  rendered  clear,  I  will  first  shortly  explain  the  principle 
on  which  the  machine  is  constructed.  If  any  light  and 
flat  or  nearly  flat  article  be  projected  or  thrown  edgewise 
in  a  slightly  inclined  position,  the  same  will  rise  on  the 
air  till  the  force  exerted  is  expended,  when  the  article 
so  thrown  or  projected  will  descend;  and  it  will  readily 
be  conceived  that,  if  the  article  so  projected  or  thrown 
possessed  in  itself  a  continuous  power  or  force  equal  to 
that  used  in  throwing  or  projecting  it,  the  article  would 
continue  to  ascend  so  long  as  the  forward  part  of  the 
surface  was  upwards  in  respect  to  the  hinder  part,  and 
that  such  article,  when  the  power  was  stopped,  or  when 
the  inclination  was  reversed,  would  descend  by  gravity 
aided  by  the  force  of  the  power  contained  in  the  article, 
if  the  power  be  continued,  thus  imitating  the  flight  of 
a  bird. 

Now,  the  first  part  of  my  invention  consists  of  an 
apparatus  so  constructed  as  to  offer  a  very  extended 
surface  or  plane  of  a  light  yet  strong  construction, 
which  will  have  the  same  relation  to  the  general  machine 
which  the  extended  wings  of  a  bird  have  to  the  body 
when  a  bird  is  skimming  in  the  air;  but  in  place  of 
the  movement  or  power  for  onward  progress  being 
obtained  by  movement  of  the  extended  surface  or  plane, 
as  is  the  case  with  the  wings  of  birds,  I  apply  suitable 
paddle-wheels  or  other  proper  mechanical  propellers 
worked  by  a  steam  or  other  sufficiently  light  engine,  and 
thus  obtain  the  requisite  power  for  onward  movement 
to  the  plane  or  extended  surface;  and  in  order  to  give 
control  as  to  the  upward  and  downward  direction  of 
such  a  machine  I  apply  a  tail  to  the  extended  surface 
which  is  capable  of  being  inclined  or  raised,  so  that 
when  the  power  is  acting  to  propel  the  machine,  by 

58 


Henson's  proposed  flying  machine. 


Stringfellow's  power-driven  model — the  first  model  to 
achieve  engine-driven  flight. 

To  face  page  59 


THE  MIDDLE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY 

inclining  the  tail  upwards,  the  resistance  offered  by  the 
air  will  cause  the  machine  to  rise  on  the  air;  and,  on 
the  contrary,  when  the  inclination  of  the  tail  is  reversed, 
the  machine  will  immediately  be  propelled  downwards, 
and  pass  through  a  plane  more  or  less  inclined  to  the 
horizon  as  the  inclination  of  the  tail  is  greater  or  less; 
and  in  order  to  guide  the  machine  as  to  the  lateral 
direction  which  it  shall  take,  I  apply  a  vertical  rudder 
or  second  tail,  and,  according  as  the  same  is  inclined 
in  one  direction  or  the  other,  so  will  be  the  direction  of 
the  machine.' 

The  machine  in  question  was  very  large,  and  differed 
very  little  from  the  modern  monoplane;  the  materials 
were  to  be  spars  of  bamboo  and  hollow  wood,  with 
diagonal  wire  bracing.  The  surface  of  the  planes  was 
to  amount  to  4,500  square  feet,  and  the  tail,  triangular 
in  form  (here  modern  practice  diverges)  was  to  be 
1,500  square  feet.  The  inventor  estimated  that  there 
would  be  a  sustaining  power  of  half  a  pound  per  square 
foot,  and  the  driving  power  was  to  be  supplied  by  a 
steam  engine  of  25  to  30  horse-power,  driving 
two  six-bladed  propellers.  Henson  was  largely  depen- 
dent on  Stringfellow  for  many  details  of  his  design, 
more  especially  with  regard  to  the  construction  of  the 
engine. 

The  publication  of  the  patent  attracted  a  great 
amount  of  public  attention,  and  the  illustrations  in 
contemporary  journals,  representing  the  machine 
flying  over  the  pyramids  and  the  Channel,  anticipated 
fact  by  sixty  years  and  more;  the  scientific  world  was 
divided,  as  it  was  up  to  the  actual  accomplishment  of 
flight,  as  to  the  value  of  the  invention. 

Strongfellow     and      Henson      became     associated, 

59 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

after  the  conception  of  their  design,  with  an  attorney 
named  Colombine,  and  a  Mr  Marriott,  and  between 
the  four  of  them  a  project  grew  for  putting  the  whole 
thing  on  a  commercial  basis — Henson  and  Stringfellow 
were  to  supply  the  idea;  Marriott,  knowing  a  member 
of  Parliament,  would  be  useful  in  getting  a  company 
incorporated,  and  Colombine  would  look  after  the 
purely  legal  side  of  the  business.  Thus  an  application 
was  made  by  Mr  Roebuck,  Marriott's  M.P.,  for  an 
act  of  incorporation  for  '  The  Aerial  Steam  Transit 
Company,'  Roebuck  moving  to  bring  in  the  bill  on  the 
24th  of  March,  1843.  The  prospectus,  calling  for 
funds  for  the  development  of  the  invention,  makes 
interesting  reading  at  this  stage  of  aeronautical  develop- 
ment; it  was  as  follows: — 

PROPOSAL. 

For  subscriptions  of  sums  of  ^100,  in  furtherance 
of  an  Extraordinary  Invention  not  at  present  safe  to  be 
developed  by  securing  the  necessary  Patents,  for  which 
three  times  the  sum  advanced,  namely,  £300,  is  con- 
ditionally guaranteed  for  each  subscription  on  February 
I,  1844,  in  case  of  the  anticipations  being  realised, 
with  the  option  of  the  subscribers  being  shareholders 
for  the  large  amount  if  so  desired,  but  not  otherwise. 


An  Invention  has  recently  been  discovered,  which 
if  ultimately  successful  will  be  without  parallel  even 
in  the  age  which  introduced  to  the  world  the  wonderful 
effects  of  gas  and  of  steam. 

The  discovery  is  of  that  peculiar  nature,  so  simple 
in  principle  yet  so  perfect  in  all  the  ingredients  required 

60 


THE  MIDDLE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY 

for  complete  and  permanent  success,  that  to  promulgate 
it  at  present  would  wholly  defeat  its  development  by 
the  immense  competition  which  would  ensue,  and  the 
views  of  the  originator  be  entirely  frustrated. 

This  work,  the  result  of  years  of  labour  and  study, 
presents  a  wonderful  instance  of  the  adaptation  of  laws 
long  since  proved  to  the  scientific  world  combined 
with  established  principles  so  judiciously  and  carefully 
arranged,  as  to  produce  a  discovery  perfect  in  all  its 
parts  and  alike  in  harmony  with  the  laws  of  Nature  and 
of  science. 

The  Invention  has  been  subjected  to  several  tests 
and  examinations  and  the  results  are  most  satisfactory, 
so  much  so  that  nothing  but  the  completion  of  the 
undertaking  is  required  to  determine  its  practical 
operation,  which  being  once  established  its  utility  is 
undoubted,  as  it  would  be  a  necessary  possession  of 
every  empire,  and  it  were  hardly  too  much  to  say,  of 
every  individual  of  competent  means  in  the  civilised 
world. 

Its  qualities  and  capabilities  are  so  vast  that  it  were 
impossible  and,  even  if  possible,  unsafe  to  develop  them 
further,  but  some  idea  may  be  formed  from  the  fact 
that  as  a  preliminary  measure  patents  in  Great  Britain, 
Ireland,  Scotland,  the  Colonies,  France,  Belgium,  and 
the  United  States,  and  every  other  country  where 
protection  to  the  first  discoveries  of  an  Invention  is 
granted,  will  of  necessity  be  immediately  obtained, 
and  by  the  time  these  are  perfected,  which  it  is  estimated 
will  be  in  the  month  of  February,  the  Invention  will  be 
fit  for  Public  Trial,  but  until  the  Patents  are  sealed 
any  further  disclosure  would  be  most  dangerous  to 
the  principle  on  which  it  is  based. 

61 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

Under  these  circumstances,  it  is  proposed  to  raise 
an  immediate  sum  of  £2,000  in  furtherance  of  the 
Projector's  views,  and  as  some  protection  to  the  parties 
who  may  embark  in  the  matter,  that  this  is  not  a  visionary 
plan  for  objects  imperfectly  considered,  Mr  Colombine, 
to  whom  the  secret  has  been  confided,  has  allowed  his 
name  to  be  used  on  the  occasion,  and  who  will  if  referred 
to  corroborate  this  statement,  and  convince  any  inquirer 
of  the  reasonable  prospects  of  large  pecuniary  results 
following  the  development  of  the  Invention. 

It  is,  therefore,  intended  to  raise  the  sum  of  £2,000 
in  twenty  sums  of  j£ioo  each  (of  which  any  subscriber 
may  take  one  or  more  not  exceeding  five  in  number  to  be 
held  by  any  individual)  the  amount  of  which  is  to  be 
paid  into  the  hands  of  Mr  Colombine  as  General 
Manager  of  the  concern  to  be  by  him  appropriated  in 
procuring  the  several  Patents  and  providing  the 
expenses  incidental  to  the  works  in  progress.  For  each 
of  which  sums  of  £100  it  is  intended  and  agreed  that 
twelve  months  after  the  ist  February  next,  the  several 
parties  subscribing  shall  receive  as  an  equivalent  for 
the  risk  to  be  run  the  sum  of  £300  for  each  of  the  sums 
of  £100  now  subscribed,  provided  when  the  time  arrives 
the  Patents  shall  be  found  to  answer  the  purposes 
intended. 

As  full  and  complete  success  is  alone  looked  to,  no 
moderate  or  imperfect  benefit  is  to  be  anticipated,  but 
the  work,  if  it  once  passes  the  necessary  ordeal,  to 
which  inventions  of  every  kind  must  be  first  subject, 
will  then  be  regarded  by  every  one  as  the  most  astonishing 
discovery  of  modern  times;  no  half  success  can  follow, 
and  therefore  the  full  nature  of  the  risk  is  immediately 
ascertained. 

1    62 


THE  MIDDLE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY 

The  intention  is  to  work  and  prove  the  Patent  by 
collective  instead  of  individual  aid  as  less  hazardous  at 
first  and  more  advantageous  in  the  result  for  the  Inventor, 
as  well  as  others,  by  having  the  interest  of  several 
engaged  in  aiding  one  common  object — the  development 
of  a  Great  Plan.  The  failure  is  not  feared,  yet  as  perfect 
success  might,  by  possibility,  not  ensue,  it  is  necessary 
to  provide  for  that  result,  and  the  parties  concerned 
make  it  a  condition  that  no  return  of  the  subscribed 
money  shall  be  required,  if  the  Patents  shall  by  any 
unforeseen  circumstances  not  be  capable  of  being  worked 
at  all ;  against  which,  the  first  application  of  the  money 
subscribed,  that  of  securing  the  Patents,  affords  a 
reasonable  security,  as  no  one  without  solid  grounds 
would  think  of  such  an  expenditure. 

It  is  perfectly  needless  to  state  that  no  risk  or 
responsibility  of  any  kind  can  arise  beyond  the  payment 
of  the  sum  to  be  subscribed  under  any  circumstances 
whatever. 

As  soon  as  the  Patents  shall  be  perfected  and  proved 
it  is  contemplated,  so  far  as  may  be  found  practicable, 
to  further  the  great  object  in  view  a  Company  shall  be 
formed  but  respecting  which  it  is  unnecessary  to  state 
further  details,  than  that  a  preference  will  be  given  to 
all  those  persons  who  now  subscribe,  and  to  whom 
shares  shall  be  appropriated  according  to  the  larger 
amount  (being  three  times  the  sum  to  be  paid  by  each 
person)  contemplated  to  be  returned  as  soon  as  the 
success  of  the  Invention  shall  have  been  established, 
at  their  option,  or  the  money  paid,  whereby  the  Sub- 
scriber will  have  the  means  of  either  withdrawing  with 
a  large  pecuniary  benefit,  or  by  continuing  his  interest 
in  the  concern,  lay  the  foundation  for  participating  in 

63 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

the  immense  benefit  which  must  follow  the  success  of 
the  plan. 

It  is  not  pretended  to  conceal  that  the  project  is  a 
speculation — all  parties  believe  that  perfect  success, 
and  thence  incalculable  advantage  of  every  kind,  will 
follow  to  every  individual  joining  in  this  great  under- 
taking; but  the  Gentlemen  engaged  in  it  wish  that  no 
concealment  of  the  consequences,  perfect  success,  or 
possible  failure,  should  in  the  slightest  degree  be 
inferred.  They  believe  this  will  prove  the  germ  of 
a  mighty  work,  and  in  that  belief  call  for  the  operation 
of  others  with  no  visionary  object,  but  a  legitimate  one 
before  them,  to  attain  that  point  where  perfect  success 
will  be  secured  from  their  combined  exertions. 

All  applications  to  be  made  to  D.  E.  Colombine, 
Esquire,  8  Carlton  Chambers,  Regent  Street. 

The  applications  did  not  materialise,  as  was  only 
to  be  expected  in  view  of  the  vagueness  of  the  proposals. 
Colombine  did  some  advertising,  and  Mr  Roebuck 
expressed  himself  as  unwilling  to  proceed  further  in 
the  venture.  Henson  experimented  with  models  to 
a  certain  extent,  while  Stringfellow  looked  for  funds 
for  the  construction  of  a  full-sized  monoplane.  In 
November  of  1843  ne  suggested  that  he  and  Henson 
should  construct  a  large  model  out  of  their  own  funds. 
On  Henson's  suggestion  Colombine  and  Marriott 
were  bought  out  as  regards  the  original  patent,  and 
Stringfellow  and  Henson  entered  into  an  agreement 
and  set  to  work. 

Their  work  is  briefly  described  in  a  little  pamphlet 
by  F.  J.  Stringfellow,  entitled  A  few  Remarks  on  what 
has  been  done  with  screw-propelled  Aero-plane  Machines 


THE  MIDDLE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY 

from    1809   to    1892.     The  author   writes  with   regard 
to  the  work  that  his  father  and  Henson  undertook: — 

*  They    commenced    the    construction    of   a    small 
model  operated  by  a  spring,  and  laid  down  the  larger 
model  20  ft.  from  tip  to  tip  of  planes,  3^  ft.  wide,  giving 
70  ft.  of  sustaining  surface,  about  10  more  in  the  tail. 
The  making  of  this  model  required  great  consideration; 
various   supports   for   the   wings   were   tried,   so  as   to 
combine      lightness      with      firmness,      strength      and 
rigidity. 

*  The   planes   were   staid   from   three   sets   of  fish- 
shaped  masts,  and  rigged  square  and  firm  by  flat  steel 
rigging.     The  engine  and  boiler  were  put  in  the  car 
to   drive   two   screw-propellers,   right   and   left-handed, 
3    ft.   in   diameter,   with   four   blades   each,    occupying 
three-quarters  of  the  area  of  the  circumference,  set  at 
an    angle    of   60    degrees.      A    considerable    time    was 
spent   in    perfecting   the   motive    power.      Compressed 
air   was    tried    and    abandoned.      Tappets,  'cams,    and 
eccentrics  were  all   tried,   to  work  the  slide  valve,   to 
obtain    the    best    results.      The    piston    rod   of  engine 
passed   through   both   ends   of  the   cylinder,   and   with 
long  connecting  rods  worked  direct  on  the  cranlc  of 
the    propellers.      From    memorandum    of   experiments 
still  preserved  the  following  is  a  copy  of  one:    June, 
2yth,  1845,  water  5°  ozs->  spirit  10  ozs.,  lamp  lit  8.45, 
gauge  moves  8.46,  engine  started  8.48  (100  Ib.  pressure), 
engine  stopped  8.57,  worked  9  minutes,  2,288  revolu- 
tions, average  254  per  minute.     No  priming,  40  ozs. 
water   consumed,    propulsion   (thrust   of  propellers),    5 
Ibs.   4^   ozs.   at  commencement,   steady,   4   Ibs.   J   oz., 
57  revolutions  to  i  oz.  water,  steam  cut  off  one-third 
from  beginning. 

65 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

*  The  diameter  of  cylinder  of  engine  was  i\  inch, 
length  of  stroke  3  inches. 

'  In  the  meantime  an  engine  was  also  made  for  the 
smaller  model,  and  a  wing  action  tried,  but  with  poor 
results.  The  time  was  mostly  devoted  to  the  larger 
model,  and  in  1847  a  tent  was  erected  on  Bala  Down, 
about  two  miles  from  Chard,  and  the  model  taken  up 
one  night  by  the  workmen.  The  experiments  were  not 
so  favourable  as  was  expected.  The  machine  could 
not  support  itself  for  any  distance,  but,  when  launched 
off,  gradually  descended,  although  the  power  and 
surface  should  have  been  ample;  indeed,  according  to 
latest  calculations,  the  thrust  should  have  carried  more 
than  three  times  the  weight,  for  there  was  a  thrust  of 
5  Ibs.  from  the  propellers,  and  a  surface  of  over 
70  square  feet  to  sustain  under  30  Ibs.,  but  necessary 
speed  was  lacking/ 

Stringfellow  himself  explained  the  failure  as 
follows : — 

'  There  stood  our  aerial  protegee  in  all  her  purity — 
too  delicate,  too  fragile,  too  beautiful  for  this  rough 
world;  at  least  those  were  my  ideas  at  the  time,  but 
little  did  I  think  how  soon  it  was  to  be  realised.  I  soon 
found,  before  I  had  time  to  introduce  the  spark,  a 
drooping  in  the  wings,  a  flagging  in  all  the  parts.  In 
less  than  ten  minutes  the  machine  was  saturated  with 
wet  from  a  deposit  of  dew,  so  that  anything  like  a  trial 
was  impossible  by  night.  I  did  not  consider  we  could 
get  the  silk  tight  and  rigid  enough.  Indeed,  the  frame- 
work altogether  was  too  weak.  The  steam-engine  was 
the  best  part.  Our  want  of  success  was  not  for  want  of 
power  or  sustaining  surface,  but  for  want  of  proper 
adaptation  of  the  means  to  the  end  of  the  various  parts, ' 

66 


THE  MIDDLE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY 

Henson,  who  had  spent  a  considerable  amount  of 
money  in  these  experimental  constructions,  consoled 
himself  for  failure  by  venturing  into  matrimony;  in 
1849  he  went  to  America,  leaving  Stringfellow  to 
continue  experimenting  alone.  From  1846  to  1848 
Stringfellow  worked  on  what  is  really  an  epoch-making 
item  in  the  history  of  aeronautics — the  first  engine- 
driven  aeroplane  which  actually  flew.  The  machine 
in  question  had  a  10  foot  span,  and  was  2  ft.  across  in 
the  widest  part  of  the  wing;  the  length  of  tail  was  3  ft. 
6  ins.,  and  the  span  of  tail  in  the  widest  part  22  ins., 
the  total  sustaining  area  being  about  14  sq.  ft.  The 
motive  power  consisted  of  an  engine  with  a  cylinder  of 
three-quarter  inch  diameter  and  a  two-inch  stroke; 
between  this  and  the  crank  shaft  was  a  bevelled  gear 
giving  three  revolutions  of  the  propellers  to  every 
stroke  of  the  engine;  the  propellers,  right  and  left 
screw,  were  four-bladed  and  16  inches  in  diameter. 
The  total  weight  of  the  model  with  engine  was  8  Ibs. 
Its  successful  flight  is  ascribed  to  the  fact  that  String- 
fellow  curved  the  wings,  giving  them  rigid  front  edges  and 
flexible  trailing  edges,  as  suggested  long  before  both  by 
Da  Vinci  and  Borelli,  but  never  before  put  into  practice. 

Mr  F.  J.  Stringfellow,  in  the  pamphlet  quoted 
above,  gives  the  best  account  of  the  flight  of  this  model: 
'  My  father  had  constructed  another  small  model 
which  was  finished  early  in  1848,  and  having  the  loan 
of  a  long  room  in  a  disused  lace  factory,  early  in  June 
the  small  model  was  moved  there  for  experiments. 
The  room  was  about  22  yards  long  and  from  10  to  12 
ft.  high.  .  .  .  The  inclined  wire  for  starting  the 
machine  occupied  less  than  half  the  length  of  the  room 
and  left  space  at  the  end  for  the  machine  to  clear  the 

6? 


A   HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

floor.  In  the  first  experiment  the  tail  was  set  at  too 
high  an  angle,  and  the  machine  rose  too  rapidly  on 
leaving  the  wire.  After  going  a  few  yards  it  slid  back 
as  if  coming  down  an  inclined  plane,  at  such  an  angle 
that  the  point  of  the  tail  struck  the  ground  and  was 
broken.  The  tail  was  repaired  and  set  at  a  smaller 
angle.  The  steam  was  again  got  up,  and  the  machine 
started  down  the  wire,  and,  upon  reaching  the  point 
of  self-detachment,  it  gradually  rose  until  it  reached 
the  farther  end  of  the  room,  striking  a  hole  in  the 
canvas  placed  to  stop  it.  In  experiments  the  machine 
flew  well,  when  rising  as  much  as  one  in  seven.  The 
late  Rev.  J.  Riste,  Esq.,  lace  manufacturer,  Northcote 
Spicer,  Esq.,  J.  Toms,  Esq.,  and  others  witnessed 
experiments.  Mr  Marriatt,  late  of  the  San  Francisco 
News  Letter  brought  down  from  London  Mr  Ellis, 
the  then  lessee  of  Cremorne  Gardens,  Mr  Partridge, 
and  Lieutenant  Gale,  the  aeronaut,  to  witness  experi- 
ments. Mr  Ellis  offered  to  construct  a  covered 
way  at  Cremorne  for  experiments.  Mr  Stringfellow 
repaired  to  Cremorne,  but  not  much  better  accommo- 
dations than  he  had  at  home  were  provided,  owing  to 
unfulfilled  engagement  as  to  room.  Mr  Stringfellow 
was  preparing  for  departure  when  a  party  of  gentlemen 
unconnected  with  the  Gardens  begged  to  see  an  experi- 
ment, and  finding  them  able  to  appreciate  his  endeavours, 
he  got  up  steam  and  started  the  model  down  the  wire. 
When  it  arrived  at  the  spot  where  it  should  leave  the 
wire  it  appeared  to  meet  with  some  obstruction,  and 
threatened  to  come  to  the  ground,  but  it  soon  recovered 
itself  and  darted  off  in  as  fair  a  flight  as  it  was  possible 
to  make  at  a  distance  of  about  40  yards,  where  it  was 
stopped  by  the  canvas. 

68 


THE  MIDDLE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY 

'  Having  now  demonstrated  the  practicability  of 
making  a  steam-engine  fly,  and  finding  nothing  but  a 
pecuniary  loss  and  little  honour,  this  experimenter 
rested  for  a  long  time,  satisfied  with  what  he  had 
effected.  The  subject,  however,  had  to  him  special 
charms,  and  he  still  contemplated  the  renewal  of  his 
experiments/ 

It  appears  that  Stringfellow's  interest  did  not  revive 
sufficiently  for  the  continuance  of  the  experiments 
until  the  founding  of  the  Aeronautical  Society  of  Great 
Britain  in  1 866.  Wenham's  paper  on  Aerial  Locomotion 
read  at  the  first  meeting  of  the  Society,  which  was  held 
at  the  Society  of  Arts  under  the  Presidency  of  the  Duke 
of  Argyll,  was  the  means  of  bringing  Stringfellow 
back  into  the  field.  It  was  Wenham's  suggestion,  in 
the  first  place,  that  monoplane  design  should  be  aban- 
doned for  the  superposition  of  planes;  acting  on  this 
suggestion  Stringfellow  constructed  a  model  triplane, 
and  also  designed  a  steam  engine  of  slightly  over  one 
horse-power,  and  a  one  horse-power  copper  boiler  and 
fire  box  which,  although  capable  of  sustaining  a 
pressure  of  500  Ibs.  to  the  square  inch,  weighed  only 
about  40  Ibs. 

Both  the  engine  and  the  triplane  model  were 
exhibited  at  the  first  Aeronautical  Exhibition  held  at 
the  Crystal  Palace  in  1868.  The  triplane  had  a 
supporting  surface  of  28  sq.  ft.;  inclusive  of  engine, 
boiler,  fuel,  and  water  its  total  weight  was  under  12  Ibs. 
The  engine  worked  two  21  in.  propellers  at  600  revolu- 
tions per  minute,  and  developed  100  Ibs.  steam  pressure 
in  five  minutes,  yielding  one-third  horse-power.  Since 
no  free  flight  was  allowed  in  the  Exhibition,  owing  to 
danger  from  fire,  the  triplane  was  suspended  from  a 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

wire  in  the  nave  of  the  building,  and  it  was  noted  that, 
when  running  along  the  wire,  the  model  made  a  per- 
ceptible lift. 

A  prize  of  ^100  was  awarded  to  the  steam  engine 
as  the  lightest  steam  engine  in  proportion  to  its  power. 
The  engine  and  model  together  may  be  reckoned  as 
Stringfellow's  best  achievement.  He  used  his  £100 
in  preparation  for  further  experiments,  but  he  was 
now  an  old  man,  and  his  work  was  practically  done. 
Both  the  triplane  and  the  engine  were  eventually  bought 
for  the  Washington  Museum;  Stringfellow's  earlier 
models,  together  with  those  constructed  by  him  in 
conjunction  with  Henson,  remain  in  this  country  in  the 
Victoria  and  Albert  Museum. 

John  Stringfellow  died  on  December  I3th,  1883. 
His  place  in  the  history  of  aeronautics  is  at  least  equal 
to  that  of  Cayley,  and  it  may  be  said  that  he  laid  the 
foundation  of  such  work  as  was  subsequently 
accomplished  by  Maxim,  Langley,  and  their  fellows. 
It  was  the  coming  of  the  internal  combustion  engine 
that  rendered  flight  practicable,  and  had  this  prime 
mover  been  available  in  John  Stringfellow's  day  the 
Wright  brothers'  achievement  might  have  been  ante- 
dated by  half  a  century. 


70 


WENHAM,    LE    BRIS,    AND    SOME    OTHERS 

THERE  are  few  outstanding  events  in  the  development 
of  aeronautics  between  Stringfellow's  final  achievement 
and  the  work  of  such  men  as  Lilienthal,  Pilcher,  Mont- 
gomery, and  their  kind ;  in  spite  of  this,  the  later  middle 
decades  of  the  nineteenth  century  witnessed  a  consider- 
able amount  of  spade  work  both  in  England  and  in 
France,  the  two  countries  which  led  in  the  way  in 
aeronautical  development  until  Lilienthal  gave  honour 
to  Germany,  and  Langley  and  Montgomery  paved  the 
way  for  the  Wright  Brothers  in  America. 

Two  abortive  attempts  characterised  the  sixties  of 
last  century  in  France.  As  regards  the  first  of  these, 
it  was  carried  out  by  three  men,  Nadar,  Ponton 
d'Amecourt,  and  De  la  Landelle,  who  conceived  the 
idea  of  a  full-sized  helicopter  machine.  D'Amecourt 
exhibited  a  steam  model,  constructed  in  1865,  at  the 
Aeronautical  Society's  Exhibition  in  1868.  The  engine 
was  aluminium  with  cylinders  of  bronze,  driving  two 
screws  placed  one  above  the  other  and  rotating  in 
opposite  directions,  but  the  power  was  not  sufficient  to 
lift  the  model.  De  la  Landelle's  principal  achievement 
consisted  in  the  publication  in  1863  of  a  book  entitled 
Aviation,  which  has  a  certain  historical  value;  he  got 
out  several  designs  for  large  machines  on  the  helicopter 
principle,  but  did  little  more  until  the  three  combined 

H.A.  71  F 


A  HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

in  the  attempt  to  raise  funds  for  the  construction  of  their 
full-sized  machine.  Since  the  funds  were  not  forth- 
coming, Nadar  took  to  ballooning  as  the  means  of 
raising  money;  apparently  he  found  this  substitute 
for  real  flight  sufficiently  interesting  to  divert  him  from 
the  study  of  the  helicopter  principle,  for  the  experiment 
went  no  further. 

The  other  experimenter  of  this  period,  one  Count 
d'Esterno,  took  out  a  patent  in  1864  for  a  soaring 
machine  which  allowed  for  alteration  of  the  angle  of 
incidence  of  the  wings  in  the  manner  that  was 
subsequently  carried  out  by  the  Wright  Brothers. 
It  was  not  until  1883  that  any  attempt  was  made  to 
put  this  patent  to  practical  use,  and,  as  the  inventor 
died  while  it  was  under  construction,  it  was  never 
completed.  D'Esterno  was  also  responsible  for  the 
production  of  a  work  entitled  Du  Vol  des  Oiseaux,  which 
is  a  very  remarkable  study  of  the  flight  of  birds. 

Mention  has  already  been  made  of  the  founding 
of  the  Aeronautical  Society  of  Great  Britain,  which, 
since  1918,  has  been  the  Royal  Aeronautical  Society. 
1866  witnessed  the  first  meeting  of  the  Society  under 
the  Presidency  of  the  Duke  of  Argyll,  when  in  June, 
at  the  Society  of  Arts,  Francis  Herbert  Wenham  read 
his  now  classic  paper  Aerial  Locomotion.  Certain 
quotations  from  this  will  show  how  clearly  Wenham 
had  thought  out  the  problems  connected  with  flight. 

1  The  first  subject  for  consideration  is  the  proportion 
of  surface  to  weight,  and  their  combined  effect  in 
descending  perpendicularly  through  the  atmosphere. 
The  datum  is  here  based  upon  the  consideration  of 
safety,  for  it  may  sometimes  be  needful  for  a  living 
being  to  drop  passively,  without  muscular  effort.  One 

72 


WENHAM,  LE  BRIS,  AND  SOME  OTHERS 

square  foot  of  sustaining  surface  for  every  pound  of 
the  total  weight  will  be  sufficient  for  security. 

*  According  to  Smeaton's  table  of  atmospheric 
resistances,  to  produce  a  force  of  one  pound  on  a  square 
foot,  the  wind  must  move  against  the  plane  (or  which 
is  the  same  thing,  the  plane  against  the  wind),  at  the 
rate  of  twenty-two  feet  per  second,  or  1,320  feet  per 
minute,  equal  to  fifteen  miles  per  hour.  The  resistance 
of  the  air  will  now  balance  the  weight  on  the  descending 
surface,  and,  consequently,  it  cannot  exceed  that  speed. 
Now,  twenty-two  feet  per  second  is  the  velocity  acquired 
at  the  end  of  a  fall  of  eight  feet — a  height  from  which 
a  well-knit  man  or  animal  may  leap  down  without  much 
risk  of  injury.  Therefore,  if  a  man  with  parachute 
weigh  together  143  Ibs.,  spreading  the  same  number  of 
square  feet  of  surface  contained  in  a  circle  fourteen  and 
a  half  feet  in  diameter,  he  will  descend  at  perhaps  an 
unpleasant  velocity,  but  with  safety  to  life  and  limb. 

1  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  how  this  proportion  of  wing- 
surface  to  weight  extends  throughout  a  great  variety 
of  the  flying  portion  of  the  animal  kingdom,  even 
down  to  hornets,  bees,  and  other  insects.  In  some 
instances,  however,  as  in  the  gallinaceous  tribe,  including 
pheasants,  this  area  is  somewhat  exceeded,  but  they 
are  known  to  be  very  poor  fliers.  Residing  as  they  do 
chiefly  on  the  ground,  their  wings  are  only  required 
for  short  distances,  or  for  raising  them  or  easing  their 
descent  from  their  roosting-places  in  forest  trees,  the 
shortness  of  their  wings  preventing  them  from  taking 
extended  flights.  The  wing-surface  of  the  common 
swallow  is  rather  more  than  in  the  ratio  of  two  square 
feet  per  pound,  but  having  also  great  length  of  pinion, 
it  is  both  swift  and  enduring  in  its  flight.  When  on  a 

73 


A  HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

rapid  course  this  bird  is  in  the  habit  of  furling  its  wings 
into  a  narrow  compass.  The  greater  extent  of  surface 
is  probably  needful  for  the  continual  variations  of 
speed  and  instant  stoppages  for  obtaining  its  insect 
food. 

*  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  some  birds,  particularly 
of  the  duck  tribe,  whose  wing-surface  but  little  exceeds 
half  a  square  foot,  or  seventy-two  inches  per  pound, 
yet  they  may  be  classed  among  the  strongest  and  swiftest 
of  fliers.  A  weight  of  one  pound,  suspended  from  an 
area  of  this  extent,  would  acquire  a  velocity  due  to  a 
fall  of  sixteen  feet — a  height  sufficient  for  the  destruction 
or  injury  of  most  animals.  But  when  the  plane  is  urged 
forward  horizontally,  in  a  manner  analogous  to  the 
wings  of  a  bird  during  flight,  the  sustaining  power  is 
greatly  influenced  by  the  form  and  arrangement  of  the 
surface. 

'  In  the  case  of  perpendicular  descent,  as  a  parachute, 
the  sustaining  effect  will  be  much  the  same,  whatever 
the  figure  of  the  outline  of  the  superficies  may  be,  and 
a  circle  perhaps  affords  the  best  resistance  of  any. 
Take,  for  example,  a  circle  of  twenty  square  feet  (as 
possessed  by  the  pelican)  loaded  with  as  many  pounds. 
This,  as  just  stated,  will  limit  the  rate  of  perpendicular 
descent  to  1,320  feet  per  minute.  But  instead  of  a 
circle  sixty-one  inches  in  diameter,  if  the  area  is  bounded 
by  a  parallelogram  ten  feet  long  by  two  feet  broad,  and 
whilst  at  perfect  freedom  to  descend  perpendicularly, 
let  a  force  be  applied  exactly  in  a  horizontal  direction, 
so  as  to  carry  it  edgeways,  with  the  long  side  foremost, 
at  a  forward  speed  of  thirty  miles  per  hour — just  double 
that  of  its  passive  descent:  the  rate  of  fall  under  these 
conditions  will  be  decreased  most  remarkably,  probably 

74 


WENHAM,  LE  BRIS,  AND  SOME  OTHERS 

to  less  than  one-fifteenth  part,  or  eighty-eight  feet  per 
minute,  or  one  mile  per  hour/ 

And  again:  *  It  has  before  been  shown  how  utterly 
inadequate  the  mere  perpendicular  impulse  of  a  plane 
is  found  to  be  in  supporting  a  weight,  when  there  is  no 
horizontal  motion  at  the  time.  There  is  no  material 
weight  of  air  to  be  acted  upon,  and  it  yields  to  the 
slightest  force,  however  great  the  velocity  of  impulse 
may  be.  On  the  other  hand,  suppose  that  a  large  bird, 
in  full  flight,  can  make  forty  miles  per  hour,  or  3,520 
feet  per  minute,  and  performs  one  stroke  per  second. 
Now,  during  every  fractional  portion  of  that  stroke, 
the  wing  is  acting  upon  and  obtaining  an  impulse  from 
a  fresh  and  undisturbed  body  of  air;  and  if  the  vibration 
of  the  wing  is  limited  to  an  arc  of  two  feet,  this  by  no 
means  represents  the  small  force  of  action  that  would 
be  obtained  when  in  a  stationary  position,  for  the  impulse 
is  secured  upon  a  stratum  of  fifty-eight  feet  in  length 
of  air  at  each  stroke.  So  that  the  conditions  of  weight 
of  air  for  obtaining  support  equally  well  apply  to 
weight  of  air  and  its  reaction  in  producing  forward 
impulse. 

*  So  necessary  is  the  acquirement  of  this  horizontal 
speed,  even  in  commencing  flight,  that  most  heavy 
birds,  when  possible,  rise  against  the  wind,  and  even  run 
at  the  top  of  their  speed  to  make  their  wings  available, 
as  in  the  example  of  the  eagle,  mentioned  at  the  com- 
mencement of  this  paper.  It  is  stated  that  the  Arabs, 
on  horseback,  can  approach  near  enough  to  spear  these 
birds,  when  on  the  plain,  before  they  are  able  to 
rise;  their  habit  is  to  perch  on  an  eminence,  where 
possible. 

1  The  tail  of  a  bird  is  not  necessary  for  flight.     A 

75 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

pigeon  can  fly  perfectly  with  this  appendage  cut  short 
off;  it  probably  performs  an  important  function  in 
steering,  for  it  is  to  be  remarked,  that  most  birds  that 
have  either  to  pursue  or  evade  pursuit  are  amply  provided 
with  this  organ. 

*  The  foregoing  reasoning  is  based  upon  facts, 
which  tend  to  show  that  the  flight  of  the  largest  and 
heaviest  of  all  birds  is  really  performed  with  but  a  small 
amount  of  force,  and  that  man  is  endowed  with  sufficient 
muscular  power  to  enable  him  also  to  take  individual 
and  extended  flights,  and  that  success  is  probably  only 
involved  in  a  question  of  suitable  mechanical  adaptations. 
But  if  the  wings  are  to  be  modelled  in  imitation  of 
natural  examples,  but  very  little  consideration  will 
serve  to  demonstrate  its  utter  impracticability  when 
applied  in  these  forms/ 

Thus  Wenham,  one  of  the  best  theorists  of  his  age. 
The  Society  with  which  this  paper  connects  his  name 
has  done  work,  between  that  time  and  the  present,  of 
which  the  importance  cannot  be  overestimated,  and 
has  been  of  the  greatest  value  in  the  development  of 
aeronautics,  both  in  theory  and  experiment.  The 
objects  of  the  Society  are  to  give  a  stronger  impulse  to 
the  scientific  study  of  aerial  navigation,  to  promote 
the  intercourse  of  those  interested  in  the  subject  at 
home  and  abroad,  and  to  give  advice  and  instruction 
to  those  who  study  the  principles  upon  which  aeronautical 
science  is  based.  From  the  date  of  its  foundation  the 
Society  has  given  special  study  to  dynamic  flight, 
putting  this  before  ballooning.  Its  library,  its  bureau 
of  advice  and  information,  and  its  meetings,  all  assist  in 
forwarding  the  study  of  aeronautics,  and  its  twenty- 
three  early  Annual  Re-ports  are  of  considerable  value, 

76 


WENHAM,  LE  BRIS,  AND  SOME  OTHERS 

containing  as  they  do  a  large  amount  of  useful  informa- 
tion on  aeronautical  subjects,  and  forming  practically 
the  basis  of  aeronautical  science. 

Ante  to  Wenham,  Stringfellow  and  the  French 
experimenters  already  noted,  by  some  years,  was  Le 
Bris,  a  French  sea  captain,  who  appears  to  have  required 
only  a  thorough  scientific  training  to  have  rendered 
him  of  equal  moment  in  the  history  of  gliding  flight 
with  Lilienthal  himself.  Le  Bris,  it  appears,  watched 
the  albatross  and  deduced,  from  the  manner  in  which 
it  supported  itself  in  the  air,  that  plane  surfaces  could 
be  constructed  and  arranged  to  support  a  man  in  like 
manner.  Octave  Chanute,  himself  a  leading  exponent 
of  gliding,  gives  the  best  description  of  Le  Bris's 
experiments  in  a  work,  Progress  in  Flying  Machines, 
which,  although  published  as  recently  as  1894,  is 
already  rare.  Chanute  draws  from  a  still  rarer  book, 
namely,  De  la  Landelle's  work  published  in  1884. 
Le  Bris  himself,  quoted  by  De  la  Landelle  as  speaking 
of  his  first  visioning  of  human  flight,  describes  how  he 
killed  an  albatross,  and  then — *  I  took  the  wing  of  the 
albatross  and  exposed  it  to  the  breeze;  and  lo!  in  spite 
of  me  it  drew  forward  into  the  wind;  notwithstanding 
my  resistance  it  tended  to  rise.  Thus  I  had  discovered 
the  secret  of  the  bird!  I  comprehended  the  whole 
mystery  of  flight.' 

This  apparently  took  place  while  at  sea;  later  on 
Le  Bris,  returning  to  France,  designed  and  constructed 
an  artificial  albatross  of  sufficient  size  to  bear  his  own 
weight.  The  fact  that  he  followed  the  bird  outline 
as  closely  as  he  did  attests  his  lack  of  scientific  training 
for  his  task,  while  at  the  same  time  the  success  of  the 
experiment  was  proof  of  his  genius.  The  body  of  his 

77 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

artificial  bird,  boat-shaped,  was  13^  ft.  in  length,  with 
a  breadth  of  4  ft.  at  the  widest  part.  The  material  was 
cloth  stretched  over  a  wooden  framework;  in  front  was 
a  small  mast  rigged  after  the  manner  of  a  ship's  masts 
to  which  were  attached  poles  and  cords  with  which 
Le  Bris  intended  to  work  the  wings.  Each  wing  was 
23  ft.  in  length,  giving  a  total  supporting  surface  of 
nearly  220  sq.  ft.;  the  weight  of  the  whole  apparatus 
was  only  92  pounds.  For  steering,  both  vertical  and 
horizontal,  a  hinged  tail  was  provided,  and  the  leading 
edge  of  each  wing  was  made  flexible.  In  construction 
throughout,  and  especially  in  that  of  the  wings,  Le  Bris 
adhered  as  closely  as  possible  to  the  original  albatross. 

He  designed  an  ingenious  kind  of  mechanism 
which  he  termed  '  Rotules,'  which  by  means  of  two 
levers  gave  a  rotary  motion  to  the  front  edge  of  the 
wings,  and  also  permitted  of  their  adjustment  to  various 
angles.  The  inventor's  idea  was  to  stand  upright  in 
the  body  of  the  contrivance,  working  the  levers  and 
cords  with  his  hands,  and  with  his  feet  on  a  pedal  by 
means  of  which  the  steering  tail  was  to  be  worked. 
He  anticipated  that,  given  a  strong  wind,  he  could  rise 
into  the  air  after  the  manner  of  an  albatross,  without 
any  need  for  flapping  his  wings,  and  the  account  of  his 
first  experiment  forms  one  of  the  most  interesting 
incidents  in  the  history  of  flight.  It  is  related  in  full 
in  Chanute's  work,  from  which  the  present  account  is 
summarised. 

Le  Bris  made  his  first  experiment  on  a  main  road 
near  Douarnenez,  at  Trefeuntec.  From  his  observation 
of  the  albatross  Le  Bris  concluded  that  it  was  necessary 
to  get  some  initial  velocity  in  order  to  make  the  machine 
rise;  consequently  on  a  Sunday  morning,  with  a  breeze 

78 


WENHAM,  LE  BRIS,  AND  SOME  OTHERS 

of  about  12  miles  an  hour  blowing  down  the  road,  he 
had  his  albatross  placed  on  a  cart  and  set  off,  with  a 
peasant  driver,  against  the  wind.  At  the  outset  the 
machine  was  fastened  to  the  cart  by  a  rope  running 
through  the  rails  on  which  the  machine  rested,  and 
secured  by  a  slip  knot  on  Le  Bris's  own  wrist,  so  that 
only  a  jerk  on  his  part  was  necessary  to  loosen  the  rope 
and  set  the  machine  free.  On  each  side  walked  an 
assistant  holding  the  wings,  and  when  a  turn  of  the  road 
brought  the  machine  full  into  the  wind  these  men  were 
instructed  to  let  go,  while  the  driver  increased  the  pace 
from  a  walk  to  a  trot.  Le  Bris,  by  pressure  on  the 
levers  of  the  machine,  raised  the  front  edges  of  his 
wings  slightly;  they  took  the  wind  almost  instantly  to 
such  an  extent  that  the  horse,  relieved  of  a  great  part 
of  the  weight  he  had  been  drawing,  turned  his  trot 
into  a  gallop.  Le  Bris  gave  the  jerk  of  the  rope  that 
should  have  unfastened  the  slip  knot,  but  a  concealed 
nail  on  the  cart  caught  the  rope,  so  that  it  failed  to  run. 
The  lift  of  the  machine  was  such,  however,  that  it  relieved 
the  horse  of  very  nearly  the  weight  of  the  cart  and 
driver,  as  well  as  that  of  Le  Bris  and  his  machine,  and 
in  the  end  the  rails  of  the  cart  gave  way.  Le  Bris  rose 
in  the  air,  the  machine  maintaining  perfect  balance  and 
rising  to  a  height  of  nearly  300  ft.,  the  total  length  of 
the  glide  being  upwards  of  an  eighth  of  a  mile.  But  at 
the  last  moment  the  rope  which  had  originally  fastened 
the  machine  to  the  cart  got  wound  round  the  driver's 
body,  so  that  this  unfortunate  dangled  in  the  air  under 
Le  Bris  and  probably  assisted  in  maintaining  the  balance 
of  the  artificial  albatross.  Le  Bris,  congratulating 
himself  on  his  success,  was  prepared  to  enjoy  just  as 
long  a  time  in  the  air  as  the  pressure  of  the  wind  would 

79 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

permit,  but  the  howls  of  the  unfortunate  driver  at  the 
end  of  the  rope  beneath  him  dispelled  his  dreams;  by 
working  his  levers  he  altered  the  angle  of  the  front  wing 
edges  so  skilfully  as  to  make  a  very  successful  landing 
indeed  for  the  driver,  who,  entirely  uninjured,  disen- 
tangled himself  from  the  rope  as  soon  as  he  touched 
the  ground,  and  ran  off  to  retrieve  his  horse  and  cart. 

Apparently  his  release  made  a  difference  in  the 
centre  of  gravity,  for  Le  Bris  could  not  manipulate  his 
levers  for  further  ascent;  by  skilful  manipulation  he 
retarded  the  descent  sufficiently  to  escape  injury  to 
himself;  the  machine  descended  at  an  angle,  so  that 
one  wing,  striking  the  ground  in  front  of  the  other, 
received  a  certain  amount  of  damage. 

It  may  have  been  on  account  of  the  reluctance  of 
this  same  or  another  driver  that  Le  Bris  chose  a  different 
method  of  launching  himself  in  making  a  second 
experiment  with  his  albatross.  He  chose  the  edge  of 
a  quarry  which  had  been  excavated  in  a  depression  of 
the  ground;  here  he  assembled  his  apparatus  at  the 
bottom  of  the  quarry,  and  by  means  of  a  rope  was 
hoisted  to  a  height  of  nearly  100  ft.  from  the  quarry 
bottom,  this  rope  being  attached  to  a  mast  which  he 
had  erected  upon  the  edge  of  the  depression  in  which 
the  quarry  was  situated.  Thus  hoisted,  the  albatross 
was  swung  to  face  a  strong  breeze  that  blew  inland, 
and  Le  Bris  manipulated  his  levers  to  give  the  front  edges 
of  his  wings  a  downward  angle,  so  that  only  the  top 
surfaces  should  take  the  wing  pressure.  Having  got  his 
balance,  he  obtained  a  lifting  angle  of  incidence  on  the 
wings  by  means  of  his  levers,  and  released  the  hook 
that  secured  the  machine,  gliding  off  over  the  quarry. 
On  the  glide  he  met  with  the  inevitable  upward  current 

80 


WENHAM,  LE  BRIS,  AND  SOME  OTHERS 

of  air  that  the  quarry  and  the  depression  in  which  it 
was  situated  caused;  this  current  upset  the  balance 
of  the  machine  and  flung  it  to  the  bottom  of  the  quarry, 
breaking  it  to  fragments.  Le  Bris,  apparently  as  in- 
trepid as  ingenious,  gripped  the  mast  from  which  his 
levers  were  worked,  and,  springing  upward  as  the 
machine  touched  earth,  escaped  with  no  more  damage 
than  a  broken  leg.  But  for  the  rebound  of  the  levers 
he  would  have  escaped  even  this. 

The  interest  of  these  experiments  is  enhanced  by 
the  fact  that  Le  Bris  was  a  seafaring  man  who  con- 
ducted them  from  love  of  the  science  which  had  fired 
his  imagination,  and  in  so  doing  exhausted  his  own 
small  means.  It  was  in  1855  that  he  made  these  initial 
attempts,  and  twelve  years  passed  before  his  persistence 
was  rewarded  by  a  public  subscription  made  at  Brest 
for  the  purpose  of  enabling  him  to  continue  his  experi- 
ments. He  built  a  second  albatross,  and  on  the  advice 
of  his  friends  ballasted  it  for  flight  instead  of  travelling 
in  it  himself.  It  was  not  so  successful  as  the  first, 
probably  owing  to  the  lack  of  human  control  while  in 
flight;  on  one  of  the  trials  a  height  of  150  ft.  was 
attained,  the  glider  being  secured  by  a  thin  rope  and 
held  so  as  to  face  into  the  wind.  A  glide  of  nearly  an 
eighth  of  a  mile  was  made  with  the  rope  hanging  slack, 
and,  at  the  end  of  this  distance,  a  rise  in  the  ground 
modified  the  force  of  the  wind,  whereupon  the  machine 
settled  down  without  damage.  A  further  trial  in  a 
gusty  wind  resulted  in  the  complete  destruction  of  this 
second  machine;  Le  Bris  had  no  more  funds,  no  further 
subscriptions  were  likely  to  materialise,  and  so  the 
experiments  of  this  first  exponent  of  the  art  of  gliding 
(save  for  Besnier  and  his  kind)  came  to  an  end.  They 

Si  ' 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

constituted  a  notable  achievement,  and  undoubtedly 
Le  Bris  deserves  a  better  place  than  has  been  accorded 
him  in  the  ranks  of  the  early  experimenters. 

Contemporary  with  him  was  Charles  Spencer,  the 
first  man  to  practise  gliding  in  England.  His  apparatus 
consisted  of  a  pair  of  wings  with  a  total  area  of  30  sq. 
ft.,  to  which  a  tail  and  body  were  attached.  The  weight 
of  this  apparatus  was  some  24  Ibs.,  and,  launching 
himself  on  it  from  a  small  eminence,  as  was  done  later 
by  Lilienthal  in  his  experiments,  the  inventor  made 
flights  of  over  120  feet.  The  glider  in  question  was 
exhibited  at  the  Aeronautical  Exhibition  of  1868. 


82 


VI 


THE    AGE    OF    THE    GIANTS 


UNTIL  the  Wright  Brothers  definitely  solved  the  problem 
of  flight  and  virtually  gave  the  aeroplane  its  present 
place  in  aeronautics,  there  were  three  definite  schools 
of  experiment.  The  first  of  these  was  that  which 
sought  to  imitate  nature  by  means  of  the  ornithopter 
or  flapping-wing  machines  directly  imitative  of  bird 
flight;  the  second  school  was  that  which  believed  in 
the  helicopter  or  lifting  screw;  the  third  and  eventually 
successful  school  is  that  which  followed  up  the  principle 
enunciated  by  Cayley,  that  of  opposing  a  plane  surface 
to  the  resistance  of  the  air  by  supplying  suitable  motive 
power  to  drive  it  at  the  requisite  angle  for  support. 

Engineering  problems  generally  go  to  prove  that 
too  close  an  imitation  of  nature  in  her  forms  of  recipro- 
cating motion  is  not  advantageous;  it  is  impossible  to 
copy  the  minutiae  of  a  bird's  wing  effectively,  and  the 
bird  in  flight  depends  on  the  tiniest  details  of  its  feathers 
just  as  much  as  on  the  general  principle  on  which  the 
whole  wing  is  constructed.  Bird  flight,  however,  has 
attracted  many  experimenters,  including  even  Lilienthal; 
among  others  may  be  mentioned  F.  W.  Brearey,  who 
invented  what  he  called  the  '  Pectoral  cord,'  which 
stored  energy  on  each  upstroke  of  the  artificial  wing; 
E.  P.  Frost;  Major  R.  Moore,  and  especially  Hureau 
de  Villeneuve,  a  most  enthusiastic  student  of  this  form 

83 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

of  flight,  who  began  his  experiments  about  1865,  and 
altogether  designed  and  made  nearly  300  artificial 
birds.  One  of  his  later  constructions  was  a  machine 
in  bird  form  with  a  wing  span  of  about  50  ft.;  the  motive 
power  for  this  was  supplied  by  steam  from  a  boiler 
which,  being  stationary  on  the  ground,  was  connected 
by  a  length  of  hose  to  the  machine.  De  Villeneuve, 
turning  on  steam  for  his  first  trial,  obtained  sufficient 
power  to  make  the  wings  beat  very  forcibly;  with  the 
inventor  on  the  machine  the  latter  rose  several  feet  into 
the  air,  whereupon  de  Villeneuve  grew  nervous  and 
turned  off  the  steam  supply.  The  machine  fell  to  the 
earth,  breaking  one  of  its  wings,  and  it  does  not  appear 
that  de  Villeneuve  troubled  to  reconstruct  it.  This 
experiment  remains  as  the  greatest  success  yet  achieved 
by  any  machine  constructed  on  the  ornithopter  principle. 

It  may  be  that,  as  forecasted  by  the  prophet  Wells, 
the  flapping-wing  machine  will  yet  come  to  its  own 
and  compete  with  the  aeroplane  in  efficiency.  Against 
this,  however,  are  the  practical  advantages  of  the  rotary 
mechanism  of  the  aeroplane  propeller  as  compared 
with  the  movement  of  a  bird's  wing,  which,  according 
to  Marey,  moves  in  a  figure  of  eight.  The  force 
derived  from  a  propeller  is  of  necessity  continual,  while 
it  is  equally  obvious  that  that  derived  from  a  flapping 
movement  is  intermittent,  and,  in  the  recovery  of  a  wing 
after  completion  of  one  stroke  for  the  next,  there  is 
necessarily  a  certain  cessation,  if  not  loss,  of  power. 

The  matter  of  experiment  along  any  lines  in 
connection  with  aviation  is  primarily  one  of  hard  cash. 
Throughout  the  whole  history  of  flight  up  to  the  out- 
break of  the  European  war  development  has  been 
handicapped  on  the  score  of  finance,  and,  since  the 


THE  AGE   OF  THE   GIANTS 

arrival  of  the  aeroplane,  both  ornithopter  and  helicopter 
schools  have  been  handicapped  by  this  consideration. 
Thus  serious  study  of  the  efficiency  of  wings  in  imitation 
of  those  of  the  living  bird  has  not  been  carried  to  a  point 
that  might  win  success  for  this  method  of  propulsion. 
Even  Wilbur  Wright  studied  this  subject  and  pro- 
pounded certain  theories,  while  a  later  and  possibly  more 
scientific  student,  F.  W.  Lanchester,  has  also  contributed 
empirical  conclusions.  Another  and  earlier  student 
was  Lawrence  Hargrave,  who  made  a  wing-propelled 
model  which  achieved  successful  flight,  and  in  1885 
was  exhibited  before  the  Royal  Society  of  New  South 
Wales.  Hargrave  called  the  principle  on  which  his 
propeller  worked  that  of  a  *  Trochoided  plane  ' ;  it 
was,  in  effect,  similar  to  the  feathering  of  an  oar. 

Hargrave,  to  diverge  for  a  brief  while  from  the 
machine  to  the  man,  was  one  who,  although  he  achieved 
nothing  worthy  of  special  remark,  contributed  a  great 
deal  of  painstaking  work  to  the  science  of  flight.  He 
made  a  series  of  experiments  with  man-lifting  kites  in 
addition  to  making  a  study  of  flapping-wing  flight. 
It  cannot  be  said  that  he  set  forth  any  new  principle; 
his  work  was  mainly  imitative,  but  at  the  same  time  by 
developing  ideas  originated  in  great  measure  by  others 
he  helped  toward  the  solution  of  the  problem. 

Attempts  at  flight  on  the  helicopter  principle 
consist  in  the  work  of  De  la  Landelle  and  others  already 
mentioned.  The  possibility  of  flight  by  this  method 
is  modified  by  a  very  definite  disadvantage  of  which 
lovers  of  the  helicopter  seem  to  take  little  account.  It 
is  always  claimed  for  a  machine  of  this  type  that  it 
possesses  great  advantages  both  in  rising  and  in  landing, 
since,  if  it  were  effective,  it  would  obviously  be  able  to 

85 


A  HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

rise  from  and  alight  on  any  ground  capable  of  containing 
its  own  bulk;  a  further  advantage  claimed  is  that  the 
helicopter  would  be  able  to  remain  stationary  in  the 
air,  maintaining  itself  in  any  position  by  the  vertical 
lift  of  its  propeller. 

These  potential  assets  do  not  take  into  consideration 
the  fact  that  efficiency  is  required  not  only  in  rising, 
landing,  and  remaining  stationary  in  the  air,  but  also 
in  actual  flight.  It  must  be  evident  that  if  a  certain 
amount  of  the  motive  force  is  used  in  maintaining  the 
machine  off  the  ground,  that  amount  of  force  is  missing 
from  the  total  of  horizontal  driving  power.  Again, 
it  is  often  assumed  by  advocates  of  this  form  of  flight 
that  the  rapidity  of  climb  of  the  helicopter  would  be  far 
greater  than  that  of  the'  driven  plane ;  this  view  overlooks 
the  fact  that  the  maintenance  of  aerodynamic  support 
would  claim  the  greater  part  of  the  engine-power; 
the  rate  of  ascent  would  be  governed  by  the  amount  of 
power  that  could  be  developed  surplus  to  that  required 
for  maintenance. 

This  is  best  explained  by  actual  figures:  assuming 
that  a  propeller  15  ft.  in  diameter  is  used,  almost  50 
horse-power  would  be  required  to  get  an  upward  lift  of 
1,000  pounds;  this  amount  of  horse-power  would  be 
continually  absorbed  in  maintaining  the  machine  in 
the  air  at  any  given  level;  for  actual  lift  from  one  level 
to  another  at  a  speed  of  eleven  feet  per  second  a  further 
20  horse-power  would  be  required,  which  means  that 
70  horse-power  must  be  constantly  provided  for;  this 
absorption  of  power  in  the  mere  maintenance  of  aero- 
dynamic support  is  a  permanent  drawback. 

The  attraction  of  the  helicopter  lies,  probably,  in 
the  ease  with  which  flight  is  demonstrated  by  means 

86 


THE  AGE  OF  THE   GIANTS 

of  models  constructed  on  this  principle,  but  one  truism 
with  regard  to  the  principles  of  flight  is  that  the  problems 
change  remarkably,  and  often  unexpectedly,  with  the 
size  of  the  machine  constructed  for  experiment. 
Berriman,  in  a  brief  but  very  interesting  manual 
entitled  Principles  of  Flight^  assumed  that  '  there  is  a 
significant  dimension  of  which  the  effective  area  is  an 
expression  of  the  second  power,  while  the  weight  became 
an  expression  of  the  third  power.  Then  once  again  we 
have  the  two-thirds  power  law  militating  against  the 
successful  construction  of  large  helicopters,  on  the 
ground  that  the  essential  weight  increases  disproportion- 
ately fast  to  the  effective  area.  From  a  consideration  of 
the  structural  features  of  propellers  it  is  evident  that 
this  particular  relationship  does  not  apply  in  practice, 
but  it  seems  reasonab/e  that  some  such  governing 
factor  should  exist  as  an  explanation  of  the  apparent 
failure  of  all  full-sized  machines  that  have  been  con- 
structed. Among  models  there  is  nothing  more 
strikingly  successful  than  the  toy  helicopter,  in  which 
the  essential  weight  is  so  small  compared  with  the 
effective  area.' 

De  la  Landelle's  work,  already  mentioned,  was 
carried  on  a  few  years  later  by  another  Frenchman, 
Castel,  who  constructed  a  machine  with  eight  propellers 
arranged  in  two  fours  and  driven  by  a  compressed  air 
motor  or  engine.  The  model  with  which  Castel  ex- 
perimented had  a  total  weight  of  only  49  Ibs.;  it  rose 
in  the  air  and  smashed  itself  by  driving  against  a  wall, 
and  the  inventor  does  not  seem  to  have  proceeded 
further.  Contemporary  with  Castel  was  Professor 
Forlanini,  whose  design  was  for  a  machine  very  similar 
to  de  la  Landelle's,  with  two  superposed  screws.  This 
H.A.  87  G 


A  HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

machine  ranks  as  the  second  on  the  helicopter  principle 
to  achieve  flight;  it  remained  in  the  air  for  no  less 
than  the  third  of  a  minute  in  one  of  its  trials. 

Later  experimenters  in  this  direction  were  Kress, 
a  German;'  Professor  Wellner,  an  Austrian;  and 
W.  R.  Kimball,  an  American.  Kress,  like  most 
Germans,  set  to  the  development  of  an  idea  which 
others  had  originated;  he  followed  de  la  Landelle  and 
Forlanini  by  fitting  two  superposed  propellers  revolving 
in  opposite  directions,  and  with  this  machine  he  achieved 
good  results  as  regards  horse-power  to  weight;  Kimball, 
it  appears,  did  not  get  beyond  the  rubber-driven  model 
stage,  and  any  success  he  may  have  achieved  was 
modified  by  the  theory  enunciated  by  Berriman  and 
quoted  above. 

Comparing  these  two  schools  of  thought,  the 
helicopter  and  bird-flight  schools,  it  appears  that  the 
latter  has  the  greater  chance  of  eventual  success — 
that  is,  if  either  should  ever  come  into  competition 
with  the  aeroplane  as  effective  means  of  flight.  So  far, 
the  aeroplane  holds  the  field,  but  the  whole  science  of 
flight  is  so  new  and  so  full  of  unexpected  developments 
that  this  is  no  reason  for  assuming  that  other  means 
may  not  give  equal  effect,  when  money  and  brains  are 
diverted  from  the  driven  plane  to  a  closer  imitation  of 
natural  flight. 

Reverting  from  non-success  to  success,  from  con- 
sideration of  the  two  methods  mentioned  above  to  the 
direction  in  which  practical  flight  has  been  achieved, 
it  is  to  be  noted  that  between  the  time  of  Le  Bris, 
Stringfellow,  and  their  contemporaries,  and  the  nineties 
of  last  century,  there  was  much  plodding  work  carried 
out  with  little  visible  result,  more  especially  so  far  as 

88 


THE  AGE   OF  THE   GIANTS 

English  students  were  concerned.  Among  the  incidents 
of  those  years  is  one  of  the  most  pathetic  tragedies  in 
the  whole  history  of  aviation,  that  of  Alphonse  Penaud, 
who,  in  his  thirty  years  of  life,  condensed  the  experience 
of  his  predecessors  and  combined  it  with  his  own 
genius  to  state  in  a  published  patent  what  the  aeroplane 
of  to-day  should  be.  Consider  the  following  abstract 
of  Penaud's  design  as  published  in  his  patent  of  1876, 
and  comparison  of  this  with  the  aeroplane  that  now 
exists  will  show  very  few  divergences  except  for  those 
forced  on  the  inventor  by  the  fact  that  the  internal 
combustion  engine  had  not  then  developed.  The 
double  surfaced  planes  were  to  be  built  with  wooden 
ribs  and  arranged  with  a  slight  dihedral  angle;  there 
was  to  be  a  large  aspect  ratio  and  the  wings  were 
cambered  as  in  Stringfellow's  later  models.  Provision 
was  made  for  warping  the  wings  while  in  flight,  and  the 
trailing  edges  were  so  designed  as  to  be  capable  of  upward 
twist  while  the  machine  was  in  the  air.  The  planes 
were  to  be  placed  above  the  car,  and  provision  was  even 
made  for  a  glass  wind-screen  to  give  protection  to  the 
pilot  during  flight.  Steering  was  to  be  accomplished 
by  means  of  lateral  and  vertical  planes  forming  a  tail; 
these  controlled  by  a  single  lever  corresponding  to  the 
1  joy  stick  '  of  the  present  day  plane. 

Penaud  conceived  this  machine  as  driven  by  two 
propellers;  alternatively  these  could  be  driven  by  petrol 
or  steam-fed  motor,  and  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the 
machine  while  in  flight  was  in  the  front  fifth  of  the 
wings.  Penaud  estimated  from  20  to  30  horse-power 
sufficient  to  drive  this  machine,  weighing  with  pilot 
and  passenger  2,600  Ibs.,  through  the  air  at  a  speed  of 
60  miles  an  hour,  with  the  wings  set  at  an  angle  of 


A   HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

incidence  of  two  degrees.  So  complete  was  the  design 
that  it  even  included  instruments,  consisting  of  an 
aneroid,  pressure  indicator,  an  anemometer,  a  compass, 
and  a  level.  There,  with  few  alterations,  is  the  aeroplane 
as  we  know  it — and  Penaud  was  twenty-seven  when 
his  patent  was  published. 

For  three  years  longer  he  worked,  experimenting 
with  models,  contributing  essays  and  other  valuable 
data  to  French  papers  on  the  subject  of  aeronautics. 
His  gains  were  ill  health,  poverty,  and  neglect,  and  at 
the  age  of  thirty  a  pistol  shot  put  an  end  to  what  had 
promised  to  be  one  of  the  most  brilliant  careers  in  all 
the  history  of  flight. 

Two  years  before  the  publication  of  Penaud's 
patent  Thomas  Moy  experimented  at  the  Crystal  Palace 
with  a  twin-propelled  aeroplane,  steam  driven,  which 
seems  to  have  failed  mainly  because  the  internal  com- 
bustion engine  had  not  yet  come  to  give  sufficient  power 
for  weight.  Moy  anchored  his  machine  to  a  pole 
running  on  a  prepared  circular  track;  his  engine 
weighed  80  Ibs.  and,  developing  only  three  horse-power, 
gave  him  a  speed  of  12  miles  an  hour.  He  himself 
estimated  that  the  machine  would  not  rise  until  he 
could  get  a  speed  of  35  miles  an  hour,  and  his  estimate 
was  correct.  Two  six-bladed  propellers  were  placed 
side  by  side  between  the  two  main  planes  of  the  machine, 
which  was  supported  on  a  triangular  wheeled  under- 
carriage and  steered  by  fairly  conventional  tail  planes. 
Moy  realised  that  he  could  not  get  sufficient  power  to 
achieve  flight,  but  he  went  on  experimenting  in  various 
directions,  and  left  much  data  concerning  his  experi- 
ments which  has  not  yet  been  deemed  worthy  of  publi- 
cation, but  which  still  contains  a  mass  of  information 

90 


THE  AGE   OF  THE  GIANTS 

that  is  of  practical  utility,  embodying  as  it  does  a  vast 
amount  of  painstaking  work. 

Penaud  and  Moy  were  followed  by  Goupil,  a  French- 
man, who,  in  place  of  attempting  to  fit  a  motor  to  an 
aeroplane,  experimented  by  making  the  wind  his  motor. 
He  anchored  his  machine  to  the  ground,  allowing  it  two 
feet  of  lift,  and  merely  waited  for  a  wind  to  come  along 
and  lift  it.  The  machine  was  stream  lined,  and  the 
wings,  curving  as  in  the  early  German  patterns  of  war 
aeroplanes,  gave  a  total  lifting  surface  of  about  290 
sq.  ft.  Anchored  to  the  ground  and  facing  a  wind  of 
19  feet  per  second,  Goupil's  machine  lifted  its  own 
weight  and  that  of  two  men  as  well  to  the  limit  of  its 
anchorage.  Although  this  took  place  as  late  as  1883 
the  inventor  went  no  further  in  practical  work.  He 
published  a  book,  however,  entitled  La  Locomotion 
Aerienne^  which  is  still  of  great  importance,  more 
especially  on  the  subject  of  inherent  stability. 

In  1884  came  the  first  patents  of  Horatio  Phillips, 
whose  work  lay  mainly  in  the  direction  of  investigation 
into  the  curvature  of  plane  surfaces,  with  a  view  to 
obtaining  the  greatest  amount  of  support.  Phillips  was 
one  of  the  first  to  treat  the  problem  of  curvature  of 
planes  as  a  matter  for  scientific  experiment,  and,  great 
as  has  been  the  development  of  the  driven  plane  in 
the  36  years  that  have  passed  since  he  began,  there 
is  still  room  for  investigation  into  the  subject  which 
he  studied  so  persistently  and  with  such  valuable 
result. 

At  this  point  it  may  be  noted  that,  with  the  solitary 
exception  of  Le  Bris,  practically  every  student  of  flight 
had  so  far  set  about  constructing  the  means  of  launching 
humanity  into  the  air  without  any  attempt  at  ascertaining 

91 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

the  nature  and  peculiarities  of  the  sustaining  medium. 
The  attitude  of  experimenters  in  general  might  be 
compared  to  that  of  a  man  who  from  boyhood  had 
grown  up  away  from  open  water,  and,  at  the  first  sight 
of  an  expanse  of  water,  set  to  work  to  construct  a  boat 
with  a  vague  idea  that,  since  wood  would  float,  only 
sufficient  power  was  required  to  make  him  an  efficient 
navigator.  Accident,  perhaps,  in  the  shape  of  lack  of 
means  of  procuring  driving  power,  drove  Le  Bris  to 
the  form  of  experiment  which  he  actually  carried  out; 
it  remained  for  the  later  years  of  the  nineteenth  century 
to  produce  men  who  were  content  to  ascertain  the 
nature  of  the  support  the  air  would  afford  before 
attempting  to  drive  themselves  through  it. 

Of  the  age  in  which  these  men  lived  and  worked, 
giving  their  all  in  many  cases  to  the  science  they  loved, 
even  to  life  itself,  it  may  be  said  with  truth  that  *  there 
were  giants  on  the  earth  in  those  days,'  as  far  as 
aeronautics  is  in  question.  It  was  an  age  of  giants  who 
lived  and  dared  and  died,  venturing  into  uncharted 
space,  knowing  nothing  of  its  dangers,  giving,  as  a  man 
gives  to  his  mistress,  without  stint  and  for  the  joy  of 
the  giving.  The  science  of  to-day,  compared  with  the 
glimmerings  that  were  in  that  age  of  the  giants,  is  a 
fixed  and  certain  thing;  the  problems  of  to-day  are 
minor  problems,  for  the  great  major  problem  vanished 
in  solution  when  the  Wright  Brothers  made  their  first 
ascent.  In  that  age  of  the  giants  was  evolved  the  flying 
man,  the  new  type  in  human  species  which  found  full 
expression  and  came  to  full  development  in  the  days  of 
the  war,  achieving  feats  of  daring  and  endurance  which 
leave  the  commonplace  landsman  staggered  at  thought 
of  that  of  which  his  fellows  prove  themselves  capable. 

92 


THE  AGE  OF  THE  GIANTS 


He  is  a  new  type,  this  flying  man,  a  being  of  self- 
forgetfulness;  of  such  was  Lilienthal,  of  such  was 
Pilcher;  of  such  in  later  days  were  Farman,  Bleriot, 
Hamel,  Rolls,  and  their  fellows;  great  names  that  will 
live  for  as  long  as  man  flies,  adventurers  equally  with 
those  of  the  spacious  days  of  Elizabeth.  To  each  of 
these  came  the  call,  and  he  worked  and  dared  and 
passed,  having,  perhaps,  advanced  one  little  step  in 
the  long  march  that  has  led  toward  the  perfecting  of 
flight. 

It  is  not  yet  twenty  years  since  man  first  flew,  but 
into  that  twenty  years  have  been  compressed  a  century 
or  so  of  progress,  while,  in  the  two  decades  that  preceded 
it,  was  compressed  still  more.  We  have  only  to  recall 
and  recount  the  work  of  four  men :  Lilienthal,  Langley, 
Pilcher,  and  Clement  Ader  to  see  the  immense  stride 
that  was  made  between  the  time  when  Penaud  pulled 
a  trigger  for  the  last  time  and  the  Wright  Brothers 
first  left  the  earth.  Into  those  two  decades  was 
compressed  the  investigation  that  meant  knowledge 
of  the  qualities  of  the  air,  together  with  the  development 
of  the  one  prime  mover  that  rendered  flight  a  possibility 
— the  internal  combustion  engine.  The  coming  and 
progress  of  this  latter  is  a  thing  apart,  to  be  detailed 
separately;  for  the  present  we  are  concerned  with  the 
evolution  of  the  driven  plane,  and  with  it  the  evolution 
of  that  daring  being,  the  flying  man.  The  two  are 
inseparable,  for  the  men  gave  themselves  to  their  art; 
the  story  of  Lilienthal's  life  and  death  is  the  story  of  his 
work;  the  story  of  Pilcher's  work  is  that  of  his  life  and 
death. 

Considering  the  flying  man  as  he  appeared  in  the 
war  period,  there  entered  into  his  composition  a  new 

93 


A  HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

element — patriotism — which  brought  about  a  modi- 
fication of  the  type,  or,  perhaps,  made  it  appear  that 
certain  men  belonged  to  the  type  who  in  reality  were 
commonplace  mortals,  animated,  under  normal  con- 
ditions, by  normal  motives,  but  driven  by  the  stress  of 
the  time  to  take  rank  with  the  last  expression  of  human 
energy,  the  flying  type.  However  that  may  be,  what 
may  be  termed  the  mathematising  of  aeronautics  has 
rendered  the  type  itself  evanescent;  your  pilot  of 
to-day  knows  his  craft,  once  he  is  trained,  much  in  the 
manner  that  a  driver  of  a  motor-lorry  knows  his  vehicle ; 
design  has  been  systematised,  capabilities  have  been 
tabulated;  camber,  dihedral  angle,  aspect  ratio,  engine 
power,  and  plane  surface,  are  business  items  of  drawing 
office  and  machine  shop;  there  is  room  for  enterprise, 
for  genius,  and  for  skill;  once  and  again  there  is  room 
for  daring,  as  in  the  first  Atlantic  flight.  Yet  that 
again  was  a  thing  of  mathematical  calculation  and 
petrol  storage,  allied  to  a  certain  stark  courage  which 
may  be  found  even  in  landsmen.  For  the  ventures 
into  the  unknown,  the  limit  of  daring,  the  work  for 
work's  sake,  with  the  almost  certainty  that  the  final 
reward  was  death,  we  must  look  back  to  the  age  of  the 
giants,  the  age  when  flying  was  not  a  business,  but 
romance. 


94 


VII 

LILIENTHAL    AND    PILCHER 

THERE  was  never  a  more  enthusiastic  and  consistent 
student  of  the  problems  of  flight  than  Otto  Lilienthal, 
who  was  born  in  1848  at  Anklam,  Pomerania,  and  even 
from  his  early  school-days  dreamed  and  planned  the 
conquest  of  the  air.  His  practical  experiments  began 
when,  at  the  age  of  thirteen,  he  and  his  brother  Gustav 
made  wings  consisting  of  wooden  framework  covered 
with  linen,  which  Otto  attached  to  his  arms,  and  then 
ran  downhill  flapping  them.  In  consequence  of  possible 
derision  on  the  part  of  other  boys,  Otto  confined  these 
experiments  for  the  most  part  to  moonlit  nights,  and 
gained  from  them  some  idea  of  the  resistance  offered 
by  flat  surfaces  to  the  air.  It  was  in  1867  that  the  two 
brothers  began  really  practical  work,  experimenting 
with  wings  which,  from  their  design,  indicate  some 
knowledge  of  Besnier  and  the  history  of  his  gliding 
experiments;  these  wings  the  brothers  fastened  to 
their  backs,  moving  them  with  their  legs  after  the 
fashion  of  one  attempting  to  swim.  Before  they  had 
achieved  any  real  success  in  gliding  the  Franco-German 
war  came  as  an  interruption;  both  brothers  served  in 
this  campaign,  resuming  their  experiments  in  1871  at 
the  conclusion  of  hostilities. 

The  experiments  made  by  the  brothers  previous  to 
the  war  had  convinced  Otto  that  previous  experimenters 

95 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

in  gliding  flight  had  failed  through  reliance  on  empirical 
conclusions  or  else  through  incomplete  observation 
on  their  own  part,  mostly  of  bird  flight.  From  1871 
onward  Otto  Lilenthal  (Gustav's  interest  in  the  problem 
was  not  maintained  as  was  his  brother's)  made  what 
is  probably  the  most  detailed  and  accurate  series  of 
observations  that  has  ever  been  made  with  regard  to 
the  properties  of  curved  wing  surfaces.  So  far  as 
could  be  done,  Lilienthal  tabulated  the  amount  of  air 
resistance  offered  to  a  bird's  wing,  ascertaining  that 
the  curve  is  necessary  to  flight,  as  offering  far  more 
resistance  than  a  flat  surface.  Cayley,  and  others,  had 
already  stated  this,  but  to  Lilienthal  belongs  the  honour 
of  being  first  to  put  the  statement  to  effective  proof — 
he  made  over  2,000  gliding  flights  between  1891  and 
the  regrettable  end  of  his  experiments;  his  practical 
conclusions  are  still  regarded  as  part  of  the  accepted 
theory  of  students  of  flight.  In  1889  he  published  a 
work  on  the  subject  of  gliding  flight  which  stands  as 
data  for  investigators,  and,  on  the  conclusions  embodied 
in  this  work,  he  began  to  build  his  gliders  and  practise 
what  he  had  preached,  turning  from  experiment  with 
models  to  wings  that  he  could  use. 

It  was  in  the  summer  of  1891  that  he  built  his 
first  glider  of  rods  of  peeled  willow,  over  which  was 
stretched  strong  cotton  fabric;  with  this,  which  had  a 
supporting  surface  of  about  100  square  feet.  Otto  Lilien- 
thal launched  himself  in  the  air  from  a  spring  board, 
making  glides  which,  at  first  of  only  a  few  feet,  gradually 
lengthened.  As  his  experience  of  the  supporting 
qualities  of  the  air  progressed  he  gradually  altered  his 
designs  until,  when  Pilcher  visited  him  in  the  spring  of 
1895,  he  experimented  with  a  glider,  roughly  made  of 


LILIENTHAL  AND  PILCHER 

peeled  willow  rods  and  cotton  fabric,  having  an  area 
of  150  square  feet  and  weighing  half  a  hundredweight. 
By  this  time  Lilienthal  had  moved  from  his  spring- 
board to  a  conical  artificial  hill  which  he  had  had  thrown 
up  on  level  ground  at  Grosse  Lichterfelde,  near  Berlin. 
This  hill  was  made  with  earth  taken  from  the  excavations 
incurred  in  constructing  a  canal,  and  had  a  cave  inside 
in  which  Lilienthal  stored  his  machines.  Pilcher,  in 
his  paper  on  '  Gliding,'1  gives  an  excellent  short  summary 
of  Lilienthal's  experiments,  from  which  the  following 
extracts  are  taken : — 

*  At  first  Lilienthal  used  to  experiment  by  jumping 
off  a  springboard  with  a  good  run.  Then  he  took  to 
practising  on  some  hills  close  to  Berlin.  In  the  summer 
of  1892  he  built  a  flat-roofed  hut  on  the  summit  of  a 
hill,  from  the  top  of  which  he  used  to  jump,  trying, 
of  course,  to  soar  as  far  as  possible  before  landing.  .  .  . 
One  of  the  great  dangers  with  a  soaring  machine  is 
losing  forward  speed,  inclining  the  machine  too  much 
down  in  front,  and  coming  down  head  first.  Lilienthal 
was  the  first  to  introduce  the  system  of  handling  a 
machine  in  the  air  merely  by  moving  his  weight  about 
in  the  machine;  he  always  rested  only  on  his  elbows 
or  on  his  elbows  and  shoulders.  .  .  . 

'In  1892  a  canal  was  being  cut,  close  to  where 
Lilienthal  lived,  in  the  suburbs  of  Berlin,  and  with  the 
surplus  earth  Lilienthal  had  a  special  hill  thrown  up 
to  fly  from.  The  country  round  is  as  flat  as  the  sea, 
and  there  is  not  a  house  or  tree  near  it  to  make  the 
wind  unsteady,  so  this  was  an  ideal  practising  ground; 
for  practising  on  natural  hills  is  generally  rendered 
very  difficult  by  shifty  and  gusty  winds.  .  .  .  This 

1  Aeronautical  Classes,  No,  5.     Royal  Aeronautical  Society's  publications, 

97 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

hill  is  50  feet  high,  and  conical.  Inside  the  hill  there 
is  a  cave  for  the  machines  to  be  kept  in.  ...  When 
Lilienthal  made  a  good  flight  he  used  to  land  300  feet 
from  the  centre  of  the  hill,  having  come  down  at  an 
angle  of  i  in  6;  but  his  best  flights  have  been  at  an 
angle  of  about  i  in  10. 

1  If  it  is  calm,  one  must  run  a  few  steps  down  the 
hill,  holding  the  machine  as  far  back  on  oneself  as 
possible,  when  the  air  will  gradually  support  one,  and 
one  slides  ofF  the  hill  into  the  air.  If  there  is  any  wind, 
one  should  face  it  at  starting  ;  to  try  to  start  with  a 
side  wind  is  most  unpleasant.  It  is  possible  after  a  great 
deal  of  practice  to  turn  in  the  air,  and  fairly  quickly. 
This  is  accomplished  by  throwing  one's  weight  to  one 
side,  and  thus  lowering  the  machine  on  that  side  towards 
which  one  wants  to  turn.  Birds  do  the  same  thing — 
crows  and  gulls  show  it  very  clearly.  Last  year  Lilienthal 
chiefly  experimented  with  double-surfaced  machines. 
These  were  very  much  like  the  old  machines  with 
awnings  spread  above  them. 

'  The  object  of  making  these  double-surfaced 
machines  was  to  get  more  surface  without  increasing 
the  length  and  width  of  the  machine.  This,  of  course, 
it  does,  but  I  personally  object  to  any  machine  in  which 
the  wing  surface  is  high  above  the  weight.  I  consider 
that  it  makes  the  machine  very  difficult  to  handle  in 
bad  weather,  as  a  puff  of  wind  striking  the  surface, 
high  above  one,  has  a  great  tendency  to  heel  the  machine 
over. 

'  Herr  Lilienthal  kindly  allowed  me  to  sail  down 
his  hill  in  one  of  these  double-surfaced  machines  last 
June.  With  the  great  facility  afforded  by  his  conical 
hill  the  machine  was  handy  enough;  but  I  am  afraid 


LILIENTHAL  AND  PILCHER 

I  should  not  be  able  to  manage  one  at  all  in  the  squally 
districts  I  have  had  to  practise  in  over  here. 

*  Herr  Lilienthal  came  to  grief  through  deserting 
his  old  method  of  balancing.  In  order  to  control  his 
tipping  movements  more  rapidly  he  attached  a  line 
from  his  horizontal  rudder  to  his  head,  so  that  when  he 
moved  his  head  forward  it  would  lift  the  rudder  and  tip 
the  machine  up  in  front,  and  vice  versa.  He  was 
practising  this  on  some  natural  hills  outside  Berlin,  and 
he  apparently  got  muddled  with  the  two  motions,  and, 
in  trying  to  regain  speed  after  he  had,  through  a  lull  in 
the  wind,  come  to  rest  in  the  air,  let  the  machine  get 
too  far  down  in  front,  came  down  head  first  and  was 
killed.' 

Then  in  another  passage  Pilcher  enunciates  what 
is  the  true  value  of  such  experiments  as  Lilienthal — 
and,  subsequently,  he  himself — made :  *  The  object  of 
experimenting  with  soaring  machines,'  he  says,  '  is  to 
enable  one  to  have  practice  in  starting  and  alighting 
and  controlling  a  machine  in  the  air.  They  cannot 
possibly  float  horizontally  in  the  air  for  any  length  of 
time,  but  to  keep  going  must  necessarily  lose  in 
elevation.  They  are  excellent  schooling  machines,  and 
that  is  all  they  are  meant  to  be,  until  power,  in  the  shape 
of  an  engine  working  a  screw  propeller,  or  an  engine 
working  wings  to  drive  the  machine  forward,  is  added; 
then  a  person  who  is  used  to  soaring  down  a  hill  with  a 
simple  soaring  machine  will  be  able  to  fly  with  com- 
parative safety.  One  can  best  compare  them  to  bicycles 
having  no  cranks,  but  on  which  one  could  learn  to 
balance  by  coming  down  an  incline/ 

It  was  in  1895  tnat  Lilienthal  passed  from  experiment 
with  the  monoplane  type  of  glider  to  the  construction 

99 


A   HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

of  a  biplane  glider  which,  according  to  his  own  account, 
gave  better  results  than  his  previous  machines.  *  Six 
or  seven  metres  velocity  of  wind/  he  says,  *  sufficed  to 
enable  the  sailing  surface  of  18  square  metres  to  carry 
me  almost  horizontally  against  the  wind  from  the  top 
of  my  hill  without  any  starting  jump.  If  the  wind  is 
stronger  I  allow  myself  to  be  simply  lifted  from  the 
point  of  the  hill  and  to  sail  slowly  towards  the  wind. 
The  direction  of  the  flight  has,  with  strong  wind,  a 
strong  upwards  tendency.  I  often  reach  positions  in 
the  air  which  are  much  higher  than  my  starting  point. 
At  the  climax  of  such  a  line  of  flight  I  sometimes  come 
to  a  standstill  for  some  time,  so  that  I  am  enabled  while 
floating  to  speak  with  the  gentlemen  who  wish  to 
photograph  me,  regarding  the  best  position  for  the 
photographing. ' 

Lilienthal's  work  did  not  end  with  simple  gliding, 
though  he  did  not  live  to  achieve  machine-driven  flight. 
Having,  as  he  considered,  gained  sufficient  experience 
with  gliders,  he  constructed  a  power-driven  machine 
which  weighed  altogether  about  90  Ibs.,  and  this  was 
thoroughly  tested.  The  extremities  of  its  wings  were 
made  to  flap,  and  the  driving  power  was  obtained  from 
a  cylinder  of  compressed  carbonic  acid  gas,  released 
through  a  hand-operated  valve  which,  Lilienthal 
anticipated,  would  keep  the  machine  in  the  air  for  four 
minutes.  There  were  certain  minor  accidents  to  the 
mechanism,  which  delayed  the  trial  flights,  and  on  the 
day  that  Lilienthal  had  determined  to  make  his  trial 
he  made  a  long  gliding  flight  with  a  view  to  testing  a 
new  form  of  rudder  that — as  Pilcher  relates — was 
worked  by  movements  of  his  head.  His  death  came 
about  through  the  causes  that  Pilcher  states;  he  fell 

100 


LILIENTHAL   AND   PILCHER 

from  a  height  of  50  feet,  breaking  his  spine,  and  the 
next  day  he  died. 

It  may  be  said  that  Lilienthal  accomplished  as 
much  as  any  one  of  the  great  pioneers  of  flying.  As 
brilliant  in  his  conceptions  as  da  Vinci  had  been  in  his, 
and  as  conscientious  a  worker  as  Borelli,  he  laid  the 
foundations  on  which  Pilcher,  Chanute,  and  Professor 
Montgomery  were  able  to  build  to  such  good  purpose. 
His  book  on  bird  flight,  published  in  1889,  with  the 
authorship  credited  both  to  Otto  and  his  brother  Gustav, 
is  regarded  as  epoch-making;  his  gliding  experiments 
are  no  less  entitled  to  this  description. 

In  England  Lilienthal's  work  was  carried  on  by 
Percy  Sinclair  Pilcher,  who,  born  in  1866,  completed 
six  years*  service  in  the  British  Navy  by  the  time  that 
he  was  nineteen,  and  then  went  through  a  course 
of  engineering,  subsequently  joining  Maxim  in  his 
experimental  work.  It  was  not  until  1895  that  he 
began  to  build  the  first  of  the  series  of  gliders  with 
which  he  earned  his  plane  among  the  pioneers  of  flight. 
Probably  the  best  account  of  Pilcher's  work  is  that 
given  in  the  Aeronautical  Classics  issued  by  the  Royal 
Aeronautical  Society,  from  which  the  following  account 
of  Pilcher's  work  is  mainly  abstracted.1 

The  '  Bat,'  as  Pilcher  named  his  first  glider,  was  a 
monoplane  which  he  completed  before  he  paid  his 
visit  to  Lilienthal  in  1895.  Concerning  this  Pilcher 
stated  that  he  purposely  finished  his  own  machine 
before  going  to  see  Lilienthal,  so  as  to  get  the  greatest 
advantage  from  any  original  ideas  he  might  have;  he 
was  not  able  to  make  any  trials  with  this  machine, 
however,  until  after  witnessing  Lilienthal's  experiments 

1  Aeronautical  Classes,  No.  5.     Royal  Aeronautical  Society  publications. 
101 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

and  making  several  glides  in  the  biplane  glider  which 
Lilienthal  constructed. 

The  wings  of  the  *  Bat '  formed  a  pronounced 
dihedral  angle;  the  tips  being  raised  4  feet  above  the 
body.  The  spars  forming  the  entering  edges  of  the 
wings  crossed  each  other  in  the  centre  and  were  lashed 
to  opposite  sides  of  the  triangle  that  served  as  a  mast 
for  the  stay- wires  that  guyed  the  wings.  The  four  ribs 
of  each  wing,  enclosed  in  pockets  in  the  fabric,  radiated 
fanwise  from  the  centre,  and  were  each  stayed  by  three 
steel  piano-wires  to  the  top  of  the  triangular  mast,  and 
similarly  to  its  base.  These  ribs  were  bolted  down  to 
the  triangle  at  their  roots,  and  could  be  easily  folded 
back  on  to  the  body  when  the  glider  was  not  in  use. 
A  small  fixed  vertical  surface  was  carried  in  the  rear. 
The  framework  and  ribs  were  made  entirely  of  Riga 
pine;  the  surface  fabric  was  nainsook.  The  area  of 
the  machine  was  150  square  feet;  its  weight  45  Ibs.; 
so  that  in  flight,  with  Pilcher's  weight  of  145  Ibs.  added, 
it  carried  one  and  a  half  pounds  to  the  square  foot. 

Pilcher's  first  glides,  which  he  carried  out  on  a 
grass  hill  on  the  banks  of  the  Clyde  near  Cardross, 
gave  little  result,  owing  to  the  exaggerated  dihedral 
angle  of  the  wings,  and  the  absence  of  a  horizontal 
tail.  The  *  Bat '  was  consequently  reconstructed  with 
a  horizontal  tail  plane  added  to  the  vertical  one,  and 
with  the  wings  lowered  so  that  the  tips  were  only  six 
inches  above  the  level  of  the  body.  The  machine  now 
gave  far  better  results;  on  the  first  glide  into  a  head 
wind  Pilcher  rose  to  a  height  of  twelve  feet  and  remained 
in  the  the  air  for  a  third  of  a  minute;  in  the  second 
attempt  a  rope  was  used  to  tow  the  glider,  which  rose 
to  twenty  feet  and  did  not  come  to  earth  again  until 

102 


Rear  view  of  Pileher's  '  Beetle.' 


The  '  Beetle,'  side  view. 


Pilcher  starting  on  glide  with  the  '  Bat.' 

^0  face  page  103 


LILIENTHAL   AND  PILCHER 

nearly  a  minute  had  passed.  With  experience  Pilcher 
was  able  to  lengthen  his  glide  and  improve  his  balance, 
but  the  dropped  wing  tips  made  landing  difficult,  and 
there  were  many  breakages. 

In  consequence  of  this  Pilcher  built  a  second  glider 
which  he  named  the  *  Beetle,'  because,  as  he  said,  it 
looked  like  one.  In  this  the  square-cut  wings  formed 
almost  a  continuous  plane,  rigidly  fixed  to  the  central 
body,  which  consisted  of  a  shaped  girder.  These  wings 
were  built  up  of  five  transverse  bamboo  spars,  with  two 
shaped  ribs  running  from  fore  to  aft  of  each  wing,  and 
were  stayed  overhead  to  a  couple  of  masts.  The  tail, 
consisting  of  two  discs  placed  crosswise  (the  horizontal 
one  alone  being  movable),  was  carried  high  up  in  the 
rear.  With  the  exception  of  the  wing-spars,  the  whole 
framework  was  built  of  white  pine.  The  wings  in  this 
machine  were  actually  on  a  higher  level  than  the 
operator's  head;  the  centre  of  gravity  was,  consequently, 
very  low,  a  fact  which,  according  to  Pilcher's  own 
account,  made  the  glider  very  difficult  to  handle. 
Moreover,  the  weight  of  the  *  Beetle,'  80  Ibs.,  was 
considerable;  the  body  had  been  very  solidly  built 
to  enable  it  to  carry  the  engine  which  Pilcher  was  then 
contemplating;  so  that  the  glider  carried  some  225  Ibs. 
with  its  area  of  170  square  feet — too  great  a  mass  for  a 
single  man  to  handle  with  comfort. 

It  was  in  the  spring  of  1896  that  Pilcher  built  his 
third  glider,  the  *  Gull,'  with  300  square  feet  of  area 
and  a  weight  of  55  Ibs.  The  size  of  this  machine 
rendered  it  unsuitable  for  experiment  in  any  but  very 
calm  weather,  and  it  incurred  such  damage  when 
experiments  were  made  in  a  breeze  that  Pilcher  found 
\t  necessary  to  build  a  fourth,  which  he  named  the 

H.A.  lOj  H 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

*  Hawk.'  This  machine  was  very  soundly  built,  being 
constructed  of  bamboo,  with  the  exception  of  the  two 
main  transverse  beams.  The  wings  were  attached  to 
two  vertical  masts,  7  feet  high,  and  8  feet  apart,  joined 
at  their  summits  and  their  centres  by  two  wooden 
beams.  Each  wing  had  nine  bamboo  ribs,  radiating 
from  its  mast,  which  was  situated  at  a  distance  of  2  feet 
6  inches  from  the  forward  edge  of  the  wing.  Each 
rib  was  rigidly  stayed  at  the  top  of  the  mast  by  three 
tie-wires,  and  by  a  similar  number  to  the  bottom  of  the 
mast,  by  which  means  the  curve  of  each  wing  was 
maintained  uniformly.  The  tail  was  formed  of  a  tri- 
angular horizontal  surface  to  which  was  affixed 
a  triangular  vertical  surface,  and  was  carried  from  the 
body  on  a  high  bamboo  mast,  which  was  also  stayed 
from  the  masts  by  means  of  steel  wires,  but  only  on 
its  upper  surface,  and  it  was  the  snapping  of  one  of 
these  guy  wires  which  caused  the  collapse  of  the  tail 
support  and  brought  about  the  fatal  end  of  Pilcher  s 
experiments.  In  flight,  Pilcher's  head,  shoulders,  and 
the  greater  part  of  his  chest  projected  above  the  wings. 
He  took  up  his  position  by  passing  his  head  and 
shoulders  through  the  top  aperture  formed  between 
the  two  wings,  and  resting  his  forearms  on  the  longi- 
tudinal body  members.  A  very  simple  form  of  under- 
carriage, which  took  the  weight  off  the  glider  on  the 
ground,  was  fitted,  consisting  of  two  bamboo  rods 
with  wheels  suspended  on  steel  springs. 

Balance  and  steering  were  effected,  apart  from  the 
high  degree  of  inherent  stability  afforded  by  the  tail, 
as  in  the  case  of  Lilienthal's  glider,  by  altering  the 
position  of  the  body.  With  this  machine  Pilcher  made 
some  twelve  glides  at  Eynsford  in  Kent  in  the  summer 

104 


LILIENTHAL  AND  PILCHER 

of  1896,  and  as  he  progressed  he  increased  the  length 
of  his  glides,  and  also  handled  the  machine  more  easily, 
both  in  the  air  and  in  landing.  He  was  occupied  with 
plans  for  fitting  an  engine  and  propeller  to  the  '  Hawk,' 
but,  in  these  early  days  of  the  internal  combustion 
engine,  was  unable  to  get  one  light  enough  for  his 
purpose.  There  were  rumours  of  an  engine  weighing 
15  Ibs.  which  gave  i  horse-power,  and  was  reported 
to  be  in  existence  in  America,  but  it  could  not  be  traced. 
In  the  spring  of  1897  Pilcher  took  up  his  gliding 
experiments  again,  obtaining  what  was  probably  the 
best  of  his  glides  on  June  1 9th,  when  he  alighted  after 
a  perfectly  balanced  glide  of  over  250  yards  in  length, 
having  crossed  a  valley  at  a  considerable  height.  From 
his  various  experiments  he  concluded  that  once  the 
machine  was  launched  in  the  air  an  engine  of,  at  most, 
3  horse-power  would  suffice  for  the  maintenance  of  hori- 
zontal flight,  but  he  had  to  allow  for  the  additional  weight 
of  the  engine  and  propeller,  and  taking  into  account  the 
comparative  inefficiency  of  the  propeller,  he  planned  for 
an  engine  of  4  horse-power.  Engine  and  propeller 
together  were  estimated  at  under  44  Ibs.  weight,  the  engine 
was  to  be  fitted  in  front  of  the  operator,  and  by  means  of 
an  overhead  shaft  was  to  operate  the  propeller  situated 
in  rear  of  the  wings.  1898  went  by  while  this  engine 
was  under  construction.  Then  in  1899  Pilcher  became 
interested  in  Lawrence  Hargrave's  soaring  kites,  with 
which  he  carried  out  experiments  during  the  summer 
of  1899.  It  is  believed  that  he  intended  to  incorporate 
a  number  of  these  kites  in  a  new  machine,  a  triplane,  of 
which  the  fragments  remaining  are  hardly  sufficient  to 
reconstitute  the  complete  glider.  This  new  machine 
was  never  given  a  trial,  for  on  September  3oth,  1899, 

105 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

at  Stamford  Hall,  Market  Harborough,  Pilcher  agreed 
to  give  a  demonstration  of  gliding  flight,  but  owing  to 
the  unfavourable  weather  he  decided  to  postpone  the 
trial  of  the  new  machine  and  to  experiment  with  the 
*  Hawk/  which  was  intended  to  rise  from  a  level  field, 
towed  by  a  line  passing  over  a  tackle  drawn  by  two 
horses.  At  the  first  trial  the  machine  rose  easily,  but 
the  tow-line  snapped  when  it  was  well  clear  of  the 
ground,  and  the  glider  descended,  weighed  down 
through  being  sodden  with  rain.  Pilcher  resolved  on  a 
second  trial,  in  which  the  glider  again  rose  easily  to 
about  thirty  feet,  when  one  of  the  guy  wires  of  the  tail 
broke,  and  the  tail  collapsed;  the  machine  fell  to  the 
ground,  turning  over,  and  Pilcher  was  unconscious 
when  he  was  freed  from  the  wreckage. 

Hopes  were  entertained  of  his  recovery,  but  he 
died  on  Monday,  October  2nd,  1899,  aged  only  thirty- 
four.  His  work  in  the  cause  of  flying  lasted  only  four 
years,  but  in  that  time  his  actual  accomplishments 
were  sufficient  to  place  his  name  beside  that  of  Lilienthal, 
with  whom  he  ranks  as  one  of  the  greatest  exponents  of 
gliding  flight. 


106 


'The  Hawk' — front  view,  rear  view,  and  in 
flight  with  Pilcher. 

To  face  page  icb 


VIII 

AMERICAN    GLIDING    EXPERIMENTS 

WHILE  Pilcher  was  carrying  on  Lilienthal's  work  in 
England,  the  great  German  had  also  a  follower  in 
America;  one  Octave  Chanute,  who,  in  one  of  the 
statements  which  he  has  left  on  the  subject  of  his 
experiments  acknowledges  forty  years'  interest  in  the 
problem  of  flight,  did  more  to  develop  the  glider  in 
America  than — with  the  possible  exception  of  Mont- 
gomery— any  other  man.  Chanute  had  all  the 
practicality  of  an  American ;  he  began  his  work,  so  far 
as  actual  gliding  was  concerned,  with  a  full-sized  glider 
of  the  Lilienthal  type,  just  before  Lilienthal  was  killed. 
In  a  rather  rare  monograph,  entitled  Experiments  in 
Flying,  Chanute  states  that  he  found  the  Lilienthal 
glider  hazardous  and  decided  to  test  the  value  of  an 
idea  of  his  own;  in  this  he  followed  the  same  general 
method,  but  reversed  the  principle  upon  which  Lilienthal 
had  depended  for  maintaining  his  equilibrium  in  the 
air.  Lilienthal  had  shifted  the  weight  of  his  body,  under 
immovable  wings,  as  fast  and  as  far  as  the  sustaining 
pressure  varied  under  his  surfaces;  this  shifting  was 
mainly  done  by  moving  the  feet,  as  the  actions  required 
were  small  except  when  alighting.  Chanute's  idea 
was  to  have  the  operator  remain  seated  in  the  machine 
in  the  air,  and  to  intervene  only  to  steer  or  to  alight; 
moving  mechanism  was  provided  to  adjust  the  wings 

107 


A  HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

automatically,     in     order     to     restore     balance     when 
necessary. 

Chanute  realised  that  experiments  with  models 
were  of  little  use;  in  order  to  be  fully  instructive,  these 
experiments  should  be  made  with  a  full-sized  machine 
which  carried  its  operator,  for  models  seldom  fly  twice 
alike  in  the  open  air,  and  no  relation  can  be  gained 
from  them  of  the  divergent  air  currents  which  they 
have  experienced.  Chanute's  idea  was  that  any  flying 
machine  which  might  be  constructed  must  be  able  to 
operate  in  a  wind;  hence  the  necessity  for  an  operator 
to  report  upon  what  occurred  in  flight,  and  to  acquire 
practical  experience  of  the  work  of  the  human  factor 
in  imitation  of  bird  flight.  From  this  point  of  view  he 
conducted  his  own  experiments;  it  must  be  noted  that 
he  was  over  sixty  years  of  age  when  he  began,  and, 
being  no  longer  sufficiently  young  and  active  to  perform 
any  but  short  and  insignificant  glides,  the  courage  of 
the  man  becomes  all  the  more  noteworthy;  he  set  to 
work  to  evolve  the  state  required  by  the  problem  of 
stability,  and  without  any  expectation  of  advancing  to 
the  construction  of  a  flying  machine  which  might  be 
of  commercial  value.  His  main  idea  was  the  testing  of 
devices  to  secure  equilibrium;  for  this  purpose  he 
employed  assistants  to  carry  out  the  practical  work, 
where  he  himself  was  unable  to  supply  the  necessary 
physical  energy. 

Together  with  his  assistants  he  found  a  suitable 
place  for  experiments  among  the  sandhills  on  the  shore 
of  Lake  Michigan,  about  thirty  miles  eastward  from 
Chicago.  Here  a  hill  about  ninety-five  feet  high  was 
selected  as  a  point  from  which  Chanute's  gliders  could 
set  off;  in  practice,  it  was  found  that  the  best  observation 

108 


AMERICAN   GLIDING   EXPERIMENTS 

was  to  be  obtained  from  short  glides  at  low  speed,  and, 
consequently,  a  hill  which  was  only  sixty-one  feet  above 
the  shore  of  the  lake  was  employed  for  the  experimental 
work  done  by  the  party. 

In  the  years  1896  and  1897,  with  parties  of  from 
four  to  six  persons,  five  full-sized  gliders  were  tried  out, 
and  from  these  two  distinct  types  were  evolved:  of 
these  one  was  a  machine  consisting  of  five  tiers  of  wings 
and  a  steering  tail,  and  the  other  was  of  the  biplane  type; 
Chanute  believed  these  to  be  safer  than  any  other 
machine  previously  evolved,  solving,  as  he  states  in  his 
monograph,  the  problem  of  inherent  equilibrium  as 
fully  as  this  could  be  done.  Unfortunately,  very  few 
photographs  were  taken  of  the  work  in  the  first  year, 
but  one  view  of  a  multiple  wing-glider  survives,  showing 
the  machine  in  flight.  In  1897  a  series  of  photographs 
was  taken  exhibiting  the  consecutive  phases  of  a  single 
flight;  this  series  of  photographs  represents  the 
experience  gained  in  a  total  of  about  one  thousand 
glides,  but  the  point  of  view  was  varied  so  as  to  exhibit 
the  consecutive  phases  of  one  single  flight. 

The  experience  gained  is  best  told  in  Chanute's 
own  words.  '  The  first  thing/  he  says,  '  which  we 
discovered  practically  was  that  the  wind  flowing  up  a 
hill-side  is  not  a  steadily-flowing  current  like  that  of  a 
river.  It  comes  as  a  rolling  mass,  full  of  tumultuous 
whirls  and  eddies,  like  those  issuing  from  a  chimney; 
and  they  strike  the  apparatus  with  constantly  varying 
force  and  direction,  sometimes  withdrawing  support 
when  most  needed.  It  has  long  been  known,  through 
instrumental  observations,  that  the  wind  is  constantly 
changing  in  force  and  direction;  but  it  needed  the 
experience  of  an  operator  afloat  on  a  gliding  machine 

109 


A  HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

to  realise  that  this  all  proceeded  from  cyclonic  action; 
so  that  more  was  learned  in  this  respect  in  a  week  than 
had  previously  been  acquired  by  several  years  of 
experiments  with  models.  There  was  a  pair  of  eagles, 
living  in  the  top  of  a  dead  tree  about  two  miles  from  our 
tent,  that  came  almost  daily  to  show  us  how  such  wind 
effects  are  overcome  and  utilised.  The  birds  swept  in 
circles  overhead  on  pulseless  wings,  and  rose  high  up  in 
the  air.  Occasionally  there  was  a  side-rocking  motion, 
as  of  a  ship  rolling  at  sea,  and  then  the  birds  rocked 
back  to  an  even  keel;  but  although  we  thought  the 
action  was  clearly  automatic,  and  were  willing  to  learn, 
our  teachers  were  too  far  off  to  show  us  just  how 
it  was  done,  and  we  had  to  experiment  for  our- 
selves.' 

Chanute  provided  his  multiple  glider  with  a  seat, 
but,  since  each  glide  only  occupied  between  eight  and 
twelve  seconds,  there  was  little  possibility  of  the  operator 
seating  himself.  With  the  multiple  glider  a  pair  of 
horizontal  bars  provided  rest  for  the  arms,  and  beyond 
these  was  a  pair  of  vertical  bars  which  the  operator 
grasped  with  his  hands;  beyond  this,  the  operator  was 
in  no  way  attached  to  the  machine.  He  took,  at  the 
most,  four  running  steps  into  the  wind,  which  launched 
him  in  the  air,  and  thereupon  he  sailed  into  the  wind 
on  a  generally  descending  course.  In  the  matter  of 
descent  Chanute  observed  the  sparrow  and  decided  to 
imitate  it.  *  When  the  latter,'  he  says,  *  approaches  the 
street,  he  throws  his  body  back,  tilts  his  outspread  wings 
nearly  square  to  the  course,  and  on  the  cushion  of  air  thus 
encountered  he  stops  his  speed  and  drops  lightly  to  the 
ground.  So  do  all  birds.  We  tried  it  with  misgivings, 
but  found  it  perfectly  effective.  The  soft  sand  was  a 

no 


AMERICAN   GLIDING   EXPERIMENTS 

great  advantage,  and  even  when  the  experts  were  racing 
there  was  not  a  single  sprained  ankle.' 

With  the  multiple  winged  glider  some  two  to  three 
hundred  glides  were  made  without  any  accident  either 
to  the  man  or  to  the  machine,  and  the  action  was  found 
so  effective,  the  principle  so  sound,  that  full  plans  were 
published  for  the  benefit  of  any  experimenters  who  might 
wish  to  improve  on  this  apparatus.  The  American 
Aeronautical  Annual  for  1897  contains  these  plans; 
Chanute  confessed  that  some  movement  on  the  part  of 
the  operator  was  still  required  to  control  the  machine, 
but  it  was  only  a  seventh  or  a  sixth  part  of  the  movement 
required  for  control  of  the  Lilienthal  type. 

Chanute  waxed  enthusiastic  over  the  possibilities 
of  gliding,  concerning  which  he  remarks  that  *  There 
is  no  more  delightful  sensation  than  that  of  gliding 
through  the  air.  All  the  faculties  are  on  the  alert,  and 
the  motion  is  astonishingly  smooth  and  elastic.  The 
machine  responds  instantly  to  the  slightest  movement 
of  the  operator;  the  air  rushes  by  one's  ears;  the  trees 
and  bushes  flit  away  underneath,  and  the  landing  comes 
all  too  quickly.  Skating,  sliding,  and  bicycling  are  not 
to  be  compared  for  a  moment  to  aerial  conveyance,  in 
which,  perhaps,  zest  is  added  by  the  spice  of  danger. 
For  it  must  be  distinctly  understood  that  there  is  constant 
danger  in  such  preliminary  experiments.  When  this 
hazard  has  been  eliminated  by  further  evolution,  gliding 
will  become  a  most  popular  sport.' 

Later  experiments  proved  that  the  biplane  type  of 
glider  gave  better  results  than  the  rather  cumbrous 
model  consisting  of  five  tiers  of  planes.  Longer  and 
more  numerous  glides,  to  the  number  of  seven  to  eight 
hundred,  were  obtained,  the  rate  of  descent  being 

III 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

about  one  in  six.  The  longest  distance  traversed  was 
about  1 20  yards,  but  Chanute  had  dreams  of  starting 
from  a  hill  about  200  feet  high,  which  would  have 
given  him  gliding  flights  of  1,200  feet.  He  remarked 
that  '  In  consequence  of  the  speed  gained  by  running, 
the  initial  stage  of  the  flight  is  nearly  horizontal,  and  it 
is  thrilling  to  see  the  operator  pass  from  thirty  to  forty 
feet  overhead,  steering  his  machine,  undulating  his 
course,  and  struggling  with  the  wind-gusts  which 
whistle  through  the  guy  wires.  The  automatic  mechan- 
ism restores  the  angle  of  advance  when  compromised 
by  variations  of  the  breeze;  but  when  these  come  from 
one  side  and  tilt  the  apparatus,  the  weight  has  to  be 
shifted  to  right  the  machine  .  .  .  these  gusts  sometimes 
raise  the  machine  from  ten  to  twenty  feet  vertically, 
and  sometimes  they  strike  the  apparatus  from  above, 
causing  it  to  descend  suddenly.  When  sailing  near 
the  ground,  these  vicissitudes  can  be  counteracted  by 
movements  of  the  body  from  three  to  four  inches;  but 
this  has  to  be  done  instantly,  for  neither  wings  nor 
gravity  will  wait  on  meditation.  At  a  height  of  three 
hundred  or  four  hundred  feet  the  regulating  mechanism 
would  probably  take  care  of  these  wind-gusts,  as  it 
does,  in  fact,  for  their  minor  variations.  The  speed  of 
the  machine  is  generally  about  seventeen  miles  an  hour 
over  the  ground,  and  from  twenty-two  to  thirty  miles 
an  hour  relative  to  the  air.  Constant  effort  was  directed 
to  keep  down  the  velocity,  which  was  at  times  fifty-two 
miles  an  hour.  This  is  the  purpose  of  the  starting  and 
gliding  against  the  wind,  which  thus  furnishes  an 
initial  velocity  without  there  being  undue  speed  at  the 
landing.  The  highest  wind  we  dared  to  experiment 
in  blew  at  thirty-one  miles  an  hour ;  when  the 

112 


AMERICAN  GLIDING  EXPERIMENTS 

wind  was  stronger,  we  waited  and  watched  the 
birds.' 

Chanute  details  an  amusing  little  incident  which 
occurred  in  the  course  of  experiment  with  the  biplane 
glider.  He  says  that  *  We  had  taken  one  of  the 
machines  to  the  top  of  the  hill,  and  loaded  its  lower 
wings  with  sand  to  hold  it  while  we  went  to  lunch. 
A  gull  came  strolling  inland,  and  flapped  full-winged 
to  inspect.  He  swept  several  circles  above  the  machine, 
stretched  his  neck,  gave  a  squawk  and  went  off.  Presently 
he  returned  with  eleven  other  gulls,  and  they  seemed  to 
hold  a  conclave  about  one  hundred  feet  above  the  big 
new  white  bird  which  they  had  discovered  on  the  sand. 
They  circled  round  after  round,  and  once  in  a  while 
there  was  a  series  of  loud  peeps,  like  those  of  a  rusty 
gate,  as  if  in  conference,  with  sudden  flutterings,  as  if  a 
terrifying  suggestion  had  been  made.  The  bolder 
birds  occasionally  swooped  downwards  to  inspect  the 
monster  more  closely;  they  twisted  their  heads  around 
to  bring  first  one  eye  and  then  the  other  to  bear,  and 
then  they  rose  again.  After  some  seven  or  eight  minutes 
of  this  performance,  they  evidently  concluded  either 
that  the  stranger  was  too  formidable  to  tackle,  if  alive, 
or  that  he  was  not  good  to  eat,  if  dead,  and  they  flew 
off  to  resume  fishing,  for  the  weak  point  about  a  bird  is 
his  stomach.* 

The  gliders  were  found  so  stable,  more  especially 
the  biplane  form,  that  in  the  end  Chanute  permitted 
amateurs  to  make  trials  under  guidance,  and  throughout 
the  whole  series  of  experiments  not  a  single  accident 
occurred.  Chanute  came  to  the  conclusion  that  any 
young,  quick,  and  handy  man  could  master  a  gliding 
machine  almost  as  soon  as  he  could  get  the  hang  of  a 


A   HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

bicycle,  although  the  penalty  for  any  mistake  would  be 
much  more  severe. 

At  the  conclusion  of  his  experiments  he  decided 
that  neither  the  multiple  plane  nor  the  biplane  type  of 
glider  was  sufficiently  perfected  for  the  application  of 
motive  power.  In  spite  of  the  amount  of  automatic 
stability  that  he  had  obtained  he  considered  that  there 
was  yet  more  to  be  done,  and  he  therefore  advised  that 
every  possible  method  of  securing  stability  and  safety 
should  be  tested,  first  with  models,  and  then  with  full- 
sized  machines;  designers,  he  said,  should  make  a 
point  of  practice  in  order  to  make  sure  of  the  action,  to 
proportion  and  adjust  the  parts  of  their  machine,  and  to 
eliminate  hidden  defects.  Experimental  flight,  he 
suggested,  should  be  tried  over  water,  in  order  to  break 
any  accidental  fall;  when  a  series  of  experiments  had 
proved  the  stability  of  a  glider,  it  would  then  be  time 
to  apply  motive  power.  He  admitted  that  such  a  process 
would  be  both  costly  and  slow,  but,  he  said,  that  *  it 
greatly  diminished  the  chance  of  those  accidents  which 
bring  a  whole  line  of  investigation  into  contempt/ 
He  saw  the  flying  machine  as  what  it  has,  in  fact,  been; 
a  child  of  evolution,  carried  on  step  by  step  by  one 
investigator  after  another,  through  the  stages  of  doubt 
and  perplexity  which  lie  behind  the  realm  of  possibility, 
beyond  which  is  the  present  day  stage  of  actual  perform- 
ance and  promise  of  ultimate  success  and  triumph  over 
the  earlier,  more  cumbrous,  and  slower  forms  of  the 
transport  that  we  know. 

Chanute's  monograph,  from  which  the  foregoing 
notes  have  been  comprised,  was  written  soon  after  the 
conclusion  of  his  series  of  experiments.  He  does  not 
appear  to  have  gone  in  for  further  practical  work,  but 


PH 


I 

I  O 


AMERICAN  GLIDING  EXPERIMENTS 

to  have  studied  the  subject  from  a  theoretical  view-point 
and  with  great  attention  to  the  work  done  by  others. 
In  a  paper  contributed  in  1900  to  the  American 
Independent^  he  remarks  that  *  Flying  machines  promise 
better  results  as  to  speed,  but  yet  will  be  of  limited 
commercial  application.  They  may  carry  mails  and 
reach  other  inaccessible  places,  but  they  cannot  compete 
with  railroads  as  carriers  of  passengers  or  freight. 
They  will  not  fill  the  heavens  with  commerce,  abolish 
custom  houses,  or  revolutionise  the  world,  for  they  will 
be  expensive  for  the  loads  which  they  can  carry,  and 
subject  to  too  many  weather  contingencies.  Success 
is,  however,  probable.  Each  experimenter  has  added 
something  to  previous  knowledge  which  his  successors 
can  avail  of.  It  now  seems  likely  that  two  forms  of 
flying  machines,  a  sporting  type  and  an  exploration 
type,  will  be  gradually  evolved  within  one  or  two 
generations,  but  the  evolution  will  be  costly  and  slow, 
and  must  be  carried  on  by  well-equipped  and  thoroughly 
informed  scientific  men;  for  the  casual  inventor,  who 
relies  upon  one  or  two  happy  inspirations,  will  have 
no  chance  of  success  whatever.' 

Follows  Professor  John  J.  Montgomery,  who, 
in  the  true  American  spirit,  describes  his  own 
experiments  so  well  that  nobody  can  possibly  do  it 
better.  His  account  of  his  work  was  given  first  of  all 
in  the  American  Journal,  Aeronautics^  in  January,  1909, 
and  thence  transcribed  in  the  English  paper  of  the  same 
name  in  May,  1910,  and  that  account  is  here  copied 
word  for  word.  It  may,  however,  be  noted  first  that 
as  far  back  as  1860,  when  Montgomery  was  only  a  boy, 
he  was  attracted  to  the  study  of  aeronautical  problems, 
and  in  1883  he  built  his  first  machine,  which  was  of 

"5 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

the  flapping-wing  ornithopter  type,  and  which  showed 
its  designer,  with  only  one  experiment,  that  he  must 
design  some  other  form  of  machine  if  he  wished  to 
attain  to  a  successful  flight.  Chanute  details  how,  in 
1884  and  1885,  Montgomery  built  three  gliders, 
demonstrating  the  value  of  curved  surfaces.  With  the 
first  of  these  gliders  Montgomery  copied  the  wing  of 
a  seagull;  with  the  second  he  proved  that  a  flat  surface 
was  virtually  useless,  and  with  the  third  he  pivoted 
his  wings  as  in  the  Antoinette  type  of  power-propelled 
aeroplane,  proving  to  his  own  satisfaction  that  success 
lay  in  this  direction.  His  own  account  of  the  gliding 
flights  carried  out  under  his  direction  is  here  set  forth, 
being  the  best  description  of  his  work  that  can  be 
obtained : — 

*  When  I  commenced  practical  demonstration  in 
my  work  with  aeroplanes  I  had  before  me  three  points; 
first,  equilibrium;  second,  complete  control;  and  third, 
long  continued  or  soaring  flight.  In  starting  I  con- 
structed and  tested  three  sets  of  models,  each  in  advance 
of  the  other  in  regard  to  the  continuance  of  their  soaring 
powers,  but  all  equally  perfect  as  to  equilibrium  and 
control.  These  models  were  tested  by  dropping  them 
from  a  cable  stretched  between  two  mountain  tops, 
with  various  loads,  adjustments  and  positions.  And 
it  made  no  difference  whether  the  models  were  dropped 
upside  down  or  any  other  conceivable  position,  they 
always  found  their  equilibrium  immediately  and  glided 
safely  to  earth. 

'  Then  I  constructed  a  large  machine  patterned 
after  the  first  model,  and  with  the  assistance  of  three 
cowboy  friends  personally  made  a  number  of  flights 
in  the  steep  mountains  near  San  Juan  (a  hundred  miles 

116 


AMERICAN  GLIDING   EXPERIMENTS 

distant).  In  making  these  flights  I  simply  took  the 
aeroplane  and  made  a  running  jump.  These  tests 
were  discontinued  after  I  put  my  foot  into  a  squirrel 
hole  in  landing  and  hurt  my  leg. 

The  following  year  I  commenced  the  work  on  a 
larger  scale,  by  engaging  aeronauts  to  ride  my  aeroplane 
dropped  from  balloons.  During  this  work  I  used  five 
hot-air  balloons  and  one  gas  balloon,  five  or  six  aeroplanes, 
three  riders — Maloney,  Wilkie,  and  Defolco — and  had 
sixteen  applicants  on  my  list,  and  had  a  training  station 
to  prepare  any  when  I  needed  them. 

'  Exhibitions  were  given  in  Santa  Cruz,  San  Jose, 
Santa  Clara,  Oaklandff  and  Sacramento.  The  flights 
that  were  made,  instead  of  being  haphazard  affairs, 
were  in  the  order  of  safety  and  development.  In  the 
first  flight  of  an  aeronaut  the  aeroplane  was  so  arranged 
that  the  rider  had  little  liberty  of  action,  consequently 
he  could  make  only  a  limited  flight.  In  some  of  the 
first  flights,  the  aeroplane  did  little  more  than  settle 
in  the  air.  But  as  the  rider  gained  experience  in  each 
successive  flight  I  changed  the  adjustments,  giving  him 
more  liberty  of  action,  so  he  could  obtain  longer  flights 
and  more  varied  movements  in  the  flights.  But  in 
none  of  the  flights  did  I  have  the  adjustments  so  that 
the  riders  had  full  liberty,  as  I  did  not  consider  that 
they  had  the  requisite  knowledge  and  experience 
necessary  for  their  safety;  and  hence,  none  of  my  aero- 
planes were  launched  so  arranged  that  the  rider  could 
make  adjustments  necessary  for  a  full  flight. 

*  This  line  of  action  caused  a  good  deal  of  trouble 
with  aeronauts  or  riders,  who  had  unbounded  confidence 
and  wanted  to  make  long  flights  after  the  first  few 
trials  ;  but  I  found  it  necessary,  as  they  seemed  slow 

117 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

in  comprehending  the  important  elements  and  were 
willing  to  take  risks.  To  give  them  the  full  knowledge 
in  these  matters  I  was  formulating  plans  for  a  large 
starting  station  on  the  Mount  Hamilton  Range  from 
which  I  could  launch  an  aeroplane  capable  of  carrying 
two,  one  of  my  aeronauts  and  myself,  so  I  could  teach 
him  by  demonstration.  But  the  disasters  consequent 
on  the  great  earthquake  completely  stopped  all  my  work 
on  these  lines.  The  flights  that  were  given  were  only 
the  first  of  the  series  with  aeroplanes  patterned  after 
the  first  model.  There  were  no  aeroplanes  constructed 
according  to  the  two  other  models,  as  I  had  not  given 
the  full  demonstration  of  the  iworkings  of  the  first, 
though  some  remarkable  and  startling  work  was  done. 
On  one  occasion  Maloney,  in  trying  to  make  a  very 
short  turn  in  rapid  flight,  pressed  very  hard  on  the 
stirrup  which  gives  a  screw-shape  to  the  wings,  and 
made  a  side  somersault.  The  course  of  the  machine 
was  very  much  like  one  turn  of  a  corkscrew.  After 
this  movement  the  machine  continued  on  its  regular 
course.  And  afterwards  Wilkie,  not  to  be  outdone  by 
Maloney,  told  his  friends  he  would  do  the  same,  and 
in  a  subsequent  flight  made  two  side  somersaults,  one  in 
one  direction  and  the  other  in  an  opposite,  then  made 
a  deep  dive  and  a  long  glide,  and,  when  about  three 
hundred  feet  in  the  air,  brought  the  aeroplane  to  a 
sudden  stop  and  settled  to  the  earth.  After  these  antics, 
I  decreased  the  extent  of  the  possible  change  in  the  form 
of  wing-surface,  so  as  to  allow  only  straight  sailing  or 
only  long  curves  in  turning. 

'  During  my  work  I  had  a  few  carping  critics  that 
I  silenced  by  this  standing  offer :  If  they  would  deposit 
a  thousand  dollars  I  would  cover  it  on  this  proposition. 

118 


AMERICAN  GLIDING  EXPERIMENTS 

I  would  fasten  a  1 50  pound  sack  of  sand  in  the  rider's 
seat,  make  the  necessary  adjustments,  and  send  up  an 
aeroplane  upside  down  with  a  balloon,  the  aeroplane 
to  be  liberated  by  a  time  fuse.  If  the  aeroplane  did  not 
immediately  right  itself,  make  a  flight,  and  come  safely 
to  the  ground,  the  money  was  theirs. 

*  Now  a  word  in  regard  to  the  fatal  accident.  The 
circumstances  are  these:  The  ascension  was  given  to 
entertain  a  military  company  in  which  were  many  of 
Maloney's  friends,  and  he  had  told  them  he  would  give 
the  most  sensational  flight  they  ever  heard  of.  As  the 
balloon  was  rising  with  the  aeroplane,  a  guy  rope 
dropping  switched  around  the  right  wing  and  broke 
the  tower  that  braced  the  two  rear  wings  and  which 
also  gave  control  over  the  tail.  We  shouted  Maloney 
that  the  machine  was  broken,  but  he  probably  did  not 
hear  us,  as  he  was  at  the  same  time  saying,  "Hurrah  for 
Montgomery's  airship,"  and  as  the  break  was  behind 
him,  he  may  not  have  detected  it.  Now  did  he  know 
of  the  breakage  or  not,  and  if  he  knew  of  it  did  he  take 
a  risk  so  as  not  to  disappoint  his  friends  ?  At  all  events, 
when  the  machine  started  on  its  flight  the  rear  wings 
commenced  to  flap  (thus  indicating  they  were  loose), 
the  machine  turned  on  its  back,  and  settled  a  little  faster 
than  a  parachute.  When  we  reached  Maloney  he  was 
unconscious  and  lived  only  thirty  minutes.  The  only 
mark  of  any  kind  on  him  was  a  scratch  from  a  wire  on 
the  side  of  his  neck.  The  six  attending  physicians 
were  puzzled  at  the  cause  of  his  death.  This  is  remark- 
able for  a  vertical  descent  of  over  2,000  feet/ 

The  flights  were  brought  to  an  end  by  the  San 
Francisco  earthquake  in  April,  1 906,  which,  Montgomery 
states,  *  Wrought  such  a  disaster  that  I  had  to  turn  my 
H.A.  119  i 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

attention  to  other  subjects  and  let  the  aeroplane  rest 
for  a  time.'  Montgomery  resumed  experiments  in  1911 
in  California,  and  in  October  of  that  year  an  accident 
brought  his  work  to  an  end.  The  report  in  the  American 
Aeronautics  says  that  '  a  little  whirlwind  caught  the 
machine  and  dashed  it  head  on  to  the  ground;  Professor 
Montgomery  landed  on  his  head  and  right  hip.  He 
did  not  believe  himself  seriously  hurt,  and  talked  with 
his  year-old  bride  in  the  tent.  He  complained  of  pains 
in  his  back,  and  continued  to  grow  worse  until  he  died/ 


120 


IX 

NOT    PROVEN 

THE  early  history  of  flying,  like  that  of  most  sciences, 
is  replete  with  tragedies;  in  addition  to  these  it  contains 
one  mystery  concerning  Clement  Ader,  who  was  well 
known  among  European  pioneers  in  the  development 
of  the  telephone,  and  first  turned  his  attention  to  the 
problems  of  mechanical  flight  in  1872.  At  the  outset 
he  favoured  the  ornithopter  principle,  constructing  a 
machine  in  the  form  of  a  bird  with  a  wing-spread  of 
twenty-six  feet;  this,  according  to  Ader's  conception, 
was  to  fly  through  the  efforts  of  the  operator.  The 
result  of  such  an  attempt  was  past  question  and  naturally 
the  machine  never  left  the  ground. 

A  pause  of  nineteen  years  ensued,  and  then  in  1886 
Ader  turned  his  mind  to  the  development  of  the  aeroplane, 
constructing  a  machine  of  bat-like  form  with  a  wing- 
spread  of  about  forty-six  feet,  a  weight  of  eleven  hundred 
pounds,  and  a  steam-power  plant  of  between  twenty 
and  thirty  horse-power  driving  a  four-bladed  tractor 
screw.  On  October  9th,  1890,  the  first  trials  of  this 
machine  were  made,  and  it  was  alleged  to  have  flown 
a  distance  of  one  hundred  and  sixty-four  feet.  Whatever 
truth  there  may  be  in  the  allegation,  the  machine  was 
wrecked  through  deficient  equilibrium  at  the  end  of 
the  trial.  Ader  repeated  the  construction,  and  on 
October  I4th,  1897,  tried  out  his  third  machine  at  the 

121 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

military  establishment  at  Satory  in  the  presence  of  the 
French  military  authorities,  on  a  circular  track  specially 
prepared  for  the  experiment.  Ader  and  his  friends 
alleged  that  a  flight  of  nearly  a  thousand  feet  was  made ; 
again  the  machine  was  wrecked  at  the  end  of  the  trial, 
and  there  Ader's  practical  work  may  be  said  to  have 
ended,  since  no  more  funds  were  forthcoming  for  the 
subsidy  of  experiments. 

There  is  the  bald  narrative,  but  it  is  worthy  of 
some  amplification.  If  Ader  actually  did  what  he  claimed, 
then  the  position  which  the  Wright  Brothers  hold  as 
first  to  navigate  the  air  in  a  power-driven  plane  is 
nullified.  Although  at  this  time  of  writing  it  is  not  a 
quarter  of  a  century  since  Ader's  experiment  in  the 
presence  of  witnesses  competent  to  judge  on  his  accom- 
plishment, there  is  no  proof  either  way,  and  whether 
he  was  or  was  not  the  first  man  to  fly  remains  a  mystery 
in  the  story  of  the  conquest  of  the  air. 

The  full  story  of  Ader's  work  reveals  a  persistence 
and  determination  to  solve  the  problem  that  faced 
him  which  was  equal  to  that  of  Lilienthal.  He  began 
by  penetrating  into  the  interior  of  Algeria  after  having 
disguised  himself  as  an  Arab,  and  there  he  spent  some 
months  in  studying  flight  as  practised  by  the  vultures 
of  the  district.  Returning  to  France  in  1886  he  began 
to  construct  the  *  Eole,'  modelling  it,  not  on  the  vulture, 
but  in  the  shape  of  a  bat.  Like  the  Lilienthal  and 
Pilcher  gliders  this  machine  was  fitted  with  wings 
which  could  be  folded;  the  first  flight  made,  as  already 
noted,  on  October  9th,  1890,  took  place  in  the  grounds 
of  the  chateau  d'Amainvilliers,  near  Bretz;  two  fellow- 
enthusiasts  named  Espinosa  and  Vallier  stated  that  a 
flight  was  actually  made;  no  statement  in  the  history 

122 


NOT  PROVEN 

of  aeronautics  has  been  subject  of  so  much  question, 
and  the  claim  remains  unproved. 

It  was  in  September  of  1891  that  Ader,  by  permission 
of  the  Minister  of  War,  moved  the  '  Eole '  to  the 
military  establishment  at  Satory  for  the  purpose  of 
further  trial.  By  this  time,  whether  he  had  flown  or 
not,  his  nineteen  years  of  work  in  connection  with  the 
problems  attendant  on  mechanical  flight  had  attracted 
so  much  attention  that  henceforth  his  work  was  subject 
to  the  approval  of  the  military  authorities,  for  already 
it  was  recognised  that  an  efficient  flying  machine  would 
confer  an  inestimable  advantage  on  the  power  that 
possessed  it  in  the  event  of  war.  At  Satory  the  '  Eole  * 
was  alleged  to  have  made  a  flight  of  109  yards,  or, 
according  to  another  account,  164  feet,  as  stated  above, 
in  the  trial  in  which  the  machine  wrecked  itself  through 
colliding  with  some  carts  which  had  been  placed  near 
the  track — the  root  cause  of  this  accident,  however, 
was  given  as  deficient  equilibrium. 

Whatever  the  sceptics  may  say,  there  is  reason  for 
belief  in  the  accomplishment  of  actual  flight  by  Ader 
with  his  first  machine  in  the  fact  that,  after  the  inevitable 
official  delay  of  some  months,  the  French  War  Ministry 
granted  funds  for  further  experiment.  Ader  named  his 
second  machine,  which  he  began  to  build  in  May, 
1892,  the  *  Avion,'  and — an  honour  which  he  well 
deserves — that  name  remains  in  French  aeronautics 
as  descriptive  of  the  power-driven  aeroplane  up  to  this 
day. 

This  second  machine,  however,  was  not  a  success, 
and  it  was  not  until  1897  that  the  second  '  Avion,'  which 
was  the  third  power-driven  aeroplane  of  Ader's  con- 
struction, was  ready  for  trial.  This  was  fitted  with 

123 


A  HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

two  steam  motors  of  twenty  horse-power  each,  driving 
two  four-bladed  propellers;  the  wings  warped  auto- 
matically: that  is  to  say,  if  it  were  necessary  to  raise 
the  trailing  edge  of  one  wing  on  the  turn,  the  trailing 
edge  of  the  opposite  wing  was  also  lowered  by  the 
same  movement;  an  under-carriage  was  also  fitted, 
the  machine  running  on  three  small  wheels,  and  levers 
controlled  by  the  feet  of  the  aviator  actuated  the  move- 
ment of  the  tail  planes. 

On  October  the  I2th,  1897,  the  first  trials  of  this 
'  Avion  '  were  made  in  the  presence  of  General  Mensier, 
who  admitted  that  the  machine  made  several  hops 
above  the  ground,  but  did  not  consider  the  performance 
as  one  of  actual  flight.  The  result  was  so  encouraging, 
in  spite  of  the  partial  failure,  that,  two  days  later,  General 
Mensier,  accompanied  by  General  Grillon,  a  certain 
Lieutenant  Binet,  and  two  civilians  named  respectively 
Sarrau  and  Leaute,  attended  for  the  purpose  of  giving 
the  machine  an  official  trial,  over  which  the  great  con- 
troversy regarding  Ader's  success  or  otherwise  may  be 
said  to  have  arisen. 

We  will  take  first  Ader's  own  statement  as  set  out 
in  a  very  competent  account  of  his  work  published  in 
Paris  in  1910.  Here  are  Ader's  own  words:  *  After 
some  turns  of  the  propellers,  and  after  travelling  a  few 
metres,  we  started  off  at  a  lively  pace;  the  pressure- 
gauge  registered  about  seven  atmospheres;  almost 
immediately  the  vibrations  of  the  rear  wheel  ceased; 
a  little  later  we  only  experienced  those  of  the  front 
wheels  at  intervals.  Unhappily,  the  wind  became 
suddenly  strong,  and  we  had  some  difficulty  in  keeping 
the  "  Avion  "  on  the  white  line.  We  increased  the 
pressure  to  between  eight  and  nine  atmospheres,  and 

124 


NOT  PROVEN 

immediately  the  speed  increased  considerably,  and  the 
vibrations  of  the  wheels  were  no  longer  sensible;  we 
were  at  that  moment  at  the  point  marked  G  in  the 
sketch;  the  "  Avion  "  then  found  itself  freely  supported 
by  its  wings;  under  the  impulse  of  the  wind  it  con- 
tinually tended  to  go  outside  the  (prepared)  area  to  the 
right,  in  spite  of  the  action  of  the  rudder.  On  reaching 
the  point  V  it  found  itself  in  a  very  critical  position; 
the  wind  blew  strongly  and  across  the  direction  of  the 


Landing  of 
the 


Course  of  the  Avion's  Flight,  October  14,  1897. 

white  line  which  it  ought  to  follow;  the  machine  then, 
although  still  going  forward,  drifted  quickly  out  of  the 
area;  we  immediately  put  over  the  rudder  to  the  left 
as  far  as  it  would  go;  at  the  same  time  increasing  the 
pressure  still  more,  in  order  to  try  to  regain  the  course. 
The  "  Avion  "  obeyed,  recovered  a  little,  and  remained 
for  some  seconds  headed  towards  its  intended  course, 
but  it  could  not  struggle  against  the  wind;  instead  of 
going  back,  on  the  contrary  it  drifted  farther  and  farther 

125 


A   HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

away.  And  ill-luck  had  it  that  the  drift  took  the 
direction  towards  part  of  the  School  of  Musketry, 
which  was  guarded  by  posts  and  barriers.  Frightened 
at  the  prospect  of  breaking  ourselves  against  these 
obstacles,  surprised  at  seeing  the  earth  getting  farther 
away  from  under  the  "  Avion,"  and  very  much  impressed 
by  seeing  it  rushing  sideways  at  a  sickening  speed, 
instinctively  we  stopped  everything.  What  passed 
through  our  thoughts  at  this  moment  which  threatened 
a  tragic  turn  would  be  difficult  to  set  down.  All  at  once 
came  a  great  shock,  splintering,  a  heavy  concussion: 
we  had  landed.' 

Thus  speaks  the  inventor;  the  cold  official  mind 
gives  out  a  different  account,  crediting  the  4  Avion  ' 
with  merely  a  few  hops,  and  to-day,  among  those  who 
consider  the  problem  at  all,  there  is  a  little  group  which 
persists  in  asserting  that  to  Ader  belongs  the  credit  of 
the  first  power-driven  flight,  while  a  larger  group  is 
equally  persistent  in  stating  that,  save  for  a  few  ineffectual 
hops,  all  three  wheels  of  the  machine  never  left  the 
ground.  It  is  past  question  that  the  '  Avion  '  was 
capable  of  power-driven  flight;  whether  it  achieved 
it  or  no  remains  an  unsettled  problem. 

Ader's  work  is  negative  proof  of  the  value  of 
such  experiments  as  Lilienthal,  Pilcher,  Chanute,  and 
Montgomery  conducted;  these  four  set  to  work  to 
master  the  eccentricities  of  the  air  before  attempting 
to  use  it  as  a  supporting  medium  for  continuous  flight 
under  power;  Ader  attacked  the  problem  from  the 
other  end;  like  many  other  experimenters  he  regarded 
the  air  as  a  stable  fluid  capable  of  giving  such  support 
to  his  machine  as  still  water  might  give  to  a  fish,  and  he 
reckoned  that  he  had  only  to  produce  the  machine  in 

126 


I 


•oo 
c 

? 

jc 

4-> 

'? 


<D 
T3 


I 

<D 
O 


NOT  PROVEN 

order  to  achieve  flight.  The  wrecked  *  Avion  '  and 
the  refusal  of  the  French  War  Ministry  to  grant  any 
more  funds  for  further  experiment  are  sufficient  evidence 
of  the  need  for  working  along  the  lines  taken  by  the 
pioneers  of  gliding  rather  than  on  those  which  Ader 
himself  adopted. 

Let  it  not  be  thought  that  in  this  comment  there  is 
any  desire  to  derogate  from  the  position  which  Ader 
should  occupy  in  any  study  of  the  pioneers  of  aeronautical 
enterprise.  If  he  failed,  he  failed  magnificently,  and  if 
he  succeeded,  then  the  student  of  aeronautics  does  him 
an  injustice  and  confers  on  the  Brothers  Wright  an 
honour  which,  in  spite  of  the  value  of  their  work,  they 
do  not  deserve.  There  was  one  earlier  than  Ader, 
Alphonse  Penaud,  who,  in  the  face  of  a  lesser  disappoint- 
ment than  that  which  Ader  must  have  felt  in  gazing 
on  the  wreckage  of  his  machine,  committed  suicide; 
Ader  himself,  rendered  unable  to  do  more,  remained 
content  with  his  achievement,  and  with  the  knowledge 
that  he  had  played  a  good  part  in  the  long  search  which 
must  eventually  end  in  triumph.  Whatever  the  world 
might  say,  he  himself  was  certain  that  he  had  achieved 
flight.  This,  for  him,  was  perforce  enough. 

Before  turning  to  consideration  of  the  work 
accomplished  by  the  Brothers  Wright,  and  their  proved 
conquest  of  the  air,  it  is  necessary  first  to  sketch  as 
briefly  as  may  be  the  experimental  work  of  Sir  (then  Mr) 
Hiram  Maxim,  who,  in  his  book,  Artificial  and  Natural 
Flight^  has  given  a  fairly  complete  account  of  his  various 
experiments.  He  began  by  experimenting  with  models, 
with  screw-propelled  planes  so  attached  to  a  horizontal 
movable  arm  that  when  the  screw  was  set  in  motion 
the  plane  described  a  circle  round  a  central  point,  and, 

127 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

eventually,  he  built  a  giant  aeroplane  having  a  total 
supporting  area  of  1,500  square  feet,  and  a  wing-span 
of  fifty  feet.  It  has  been  thought  advisable  to  give 
a  fairly  full  description  of  the  power  plant  used  to 
the  propulsion  of  this  machine  in  the  section  devoted 
to  engine  development.  The  aeroplane,  as  Maxim 
describes  it,  had  five  long  and  narrow  planes  projecting 
from  each  side,  and  a  main  or  central  plane  of  pterygoid 
aspect.  A  fore  and  aft  rudder  was  provided,  and  had 
all  the  auxiliary  planes  been  put  in  position  for  experi- 
mental work  a  total  lifting  surface  of  6,000  square  feet 
could  have  been  obtained.  Maxim,  however,  did  not 
use  more  than  4,000  square  feet  of  lifting  surface  even 
in  his  later  experiments;  with  this  he  judged  the  machine 
capable  of  lifting  slightly  under  8,000  Ibs.  weight, 
made  up  of  600  Ibs.  water  in  the  boiler  and  tank,  a 
crew  of  three  men,  a  supply  of  naphtha  fuel,  and  the 
weight  of  the  machine  itself. 

Maxim's  intention  was,  before  attempting  free 
flight,  to  get  as  much  data  as  possible  regarding  the 
conditions  under  which  flight  must  be  obtained,  by 
what  is  known  in  these  days  as  *  taxi-ing ' — that  is, 
running  the  propellers  at  sufficient  speed  to  drive  the 
machine  along  the  ground  without  actually  mounting 
into  the  air.  He  knew  that  he  had  an  immense  lifting 
surface  and  a  tremendous  amount  of  power  in  his  engine 
even  when  the  total  weight  of  the  experimental  plant 
was  taken  into  consideration,  and  thus  he  set  about  to 
devise  some  means  of  keeping  the  machine  on  the  nine 
foot  gauge  rail  track  which  had  been  constructed  for 
the  trials.  At  the  outset  he  had  a  set  of  very  heavy 
cast-iron  wheels  made  on  which  to  mount  the  machine, 
the  total  weight  of  wheels,  axles,  and  connections 

128 


NOT  PROVEN 

being  about  one  and  a  half  tons.  These  were  so  con- 
structed that  the  light  flanged  wheels  which  supported 
the  machine  on  the  steel  rails  could  be  lifted  six  inches 
above  the  track,  still  leaving  the  heavy  wheels  on  the 
rails  for  guidance  of  the  machine.  *  This  arrangement,* 
Maxim  states,  '  was  tried  on  several  occasions,  the 
machine  being  run  fast  enough  to  lift  the  forward  end 
off  the  track.  However,  I  found  considerable  difficulty 
in  starting  and  stopping  quickly  on  account  of  the 
great  weight,  and  the  amount  of  energy  necessary  to 
set  such  heavy  wheels  spinning  at  a  high  velocity. 
The  last  experiment  with  these  wheels  was  made  when 
a  head  wind  was  blowing  at  the  rate  of  about  ten  miles 
an  hour.  It  was  rather  unsteady,  and  when  the  machine 
was  running  at  its  greatest  velocity,  a  sudden  gust 
lifted  not  only  the  front  end,  but  also  the  heavy  front 
wheels  completely  off  the  track,  and  the  machine 
falling  on  soft  ground  was  soon  blown  over  by  the 
wind.' 

Consequently,  a  safety  track  was  provided,  consisting 
of  squared  pine  logs,  three  inches  by  nine  inches,  placed 
about  two  feet  above  the  steel  way  and  having  a  thirty- 
foot  gauge.  Four  extra  wheels  were  fitted  to  the 
machine  on  outriggers  and  so  adjusted  that,  if  the 
machine  should  lift  one  inch  clear  of  the  steel  rails,  the 
wheels  at  the  ends  of  the  outriggers  would  engage  the 
under  side  of  the  pine  trackway. 

The  first  fully  loaded  run  was  made  in  a  dead  calm 
with  150  Ibs.  steam  pressure  to  the  square  inch,  and 
there  was  no  sign  of  the  wheels  leaving  the  steel  track. 
On  a  second  run,  with  230  Ibs.  steam  pressure  the 
machine  seemed  to  alternate  between  adherence  to  the 
lower  and  upper  tracks,  as  many  as  three  of  the  outrigger 

129 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

wheels  engaging  at  the  same  time,  and  the  weight  on 
the  steel  rails  being  reduced  practically  to  nothing.  In 
preparation  for  a  third  run,  in  which  it  was  intended 
to  use  full  power,  a  dynamometer  was  attached  to  the 
machine  and  the  engines  were  started  at  200  Ibs.  pressure, 
which  was  gradually  increased  to  310  Ibs  per  square 
inch.  The  incline  of  the  track,  added  to  the  reading  of 
the  dynamometer,  showed  a  total  screw  thrust  of  2,164 
Ibs.  After  the  dynamometer  test  had  been  completed, 
and  everything  had  been  made  ready  for  trial  in 
motion,  careful  observers  were  stationed  on  each  side 
of  the  track,  and  the  order  was  given  to  release  the 
machine.  What  follows  is  best  told  in  Maxim's  own 
words : — 

*  The  enormous  screw-thrust  started  the  engine  so 
quickly  that  it  nearly  threw  the  engineers  off  their  feet, 
and  the  machine  bounded  over  the  track  at  a  great  rate. 
Upon  noticing  a  slight  diminution  in  the  steam  pressure, 
I  turned  on  more  gas,  when  almost  instantly  the  steam 
commenced  to  blow  a  steady  blast  from  the  small  safety 
valve,  showing  that  the  pressure  was  at  least  320  Ibs. 
in  the  pipes  supplying  the  engines  with  steam.  Before 
starting  on  this  run,  the  wheels  that  were  to  engage  the 
upper  track  were  painted,  and  it  was  the  duty  of  one  of 
my  assistants  to  observe  these  wheels  during  the  run, 
while  another  assistant  watched  the  pressure  gauges 
and  dynagraphs.  The  first  part  of  the  track  was  up  a 
slight  incline,  but  the  machine  was  lifted  clear  of  the 
lower  rails  and  all  of  the  top  wheels  were  fully  engaged 
on  the  upper  track  when  about  600  feet  had  been 
covered.  The  speed  rapidly  increased,  and  when  900 
feet  had  been  covered,  one  of  the  rear  axle  trees,  which 
were  of  two-inch  steel  tubing,  doubled  up  and  set  the 

130 


NOT  PROVEN 

rear  end  of  the  machine  completely  free.  The  pencils 
ran  completely  across  the  cylinders  of  the  dynagraphs 
and  caught  on  the  underneath  end.  The  rear  end  of 
the  machine  being  set  free,  raised  considerably  above 
the  track  and  swayed.  At  about  1,000  feet,  the  left 
forward  wheel  also  got  clear  of  the  upper  track,  and 
shortly  afterwards  the  right  forward  wheel  tore  up 
about  100  feet  of  the  upper  track.  Steam  was  at  once 
shut  off  and  the  machine  sank  directly  to  the  earth, 
embedding  the  wheels  in  the  soft  turf  without  leaving 
any  other  marks,  showing  most  conclusively  that  the 
machine  was  completely  suspended  in  the  air  before  it 
settled  to  the  earth.  In  this  accident,  one  of  the  pine 
timbers  forming  the  upper  track  went  completely 
through  the  lower  framework  of  the  machine  and  broke 
a  number  of  the  tubes,  but  no  damage  was  done  to  the 
machinery  except  a  slight  injury  to  one  of  the 
screws/ 

It  is  a  pity  that  the  multifarious  directions  in  which 
Maxim  turned  his  energies  did  not  include  further 
development  of  the  aeroplane,  for  it  seems  fairly  certain 
that  he  was  as  near  solution  of  the  problem  as  Ader 
himself,  and,  but  for  the  holding-down  outer  track, 
which  was  really  the  cause  of  his  accident,  his  machine 
would  certainly  have  achieved  free  flight,  though 
whether  it  would  have  risen,  flown  and  alighted,  without 
accident,  is  matter  for  conjecture. 

The  difference  between  experiments  with  models 
and  with  full-sized  machines  is  emphasised  by  Maxim's 
statement  to  the  effect  that  with  a  small  apparatus  for 
ascertaining  the  power  required  for  artificial  flight,  an 
angle  of  incidence  of  one  in  fourteen  was  most  advan- 
tageous, while  with  a  large  machine  he  found  it  best  to 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

increase  his  angle  to  one  in  eight  in  order  to  get  the 
maximum  lifting  effect  on  a  short  run  at  a  moderate 
speed.  He  computed  the  total  lifting  effect  in  the 
experiments  which  led  to  the  accident  as  not  less  than 
10,000  Ibs.,  in  which  is  proof  that  only  his  rail  system 
prevented  free  flight. 


SAMUEL    PIERPOINT    LANGLEY 

LANGLEY  was  an  old  man  when  he  began  the  study  of 
aeronautics,  or,  as  he  himself  might  have  expressed  it, 
the  study  of  aerodromics,  since  he  persisted  in  calling 
the  series  of  machines  he  built  *  Aerodromes/  a  word 
now  used  only  to  denote  areas  devoted  to  use  as  landing 
spaces  for  flying  machines;  the  Wright  Brothers,  on 
the  other  hand,  had  the  great  gift  of  youth  to  aid  them 
in  their  work.  Even  so  it  was  a  great  race  between 
Langley,  aided  by  Charles  Manly,  and  Wilbur  and 
Orville  Wright,  and  only  the  persistent  ill-luck  which 
dogged  Langley  from  the  start  to  the  finish  of  his  experi- 
ments gave  victory  to  his  rivals.  It  has  been  proved 
conclusively  in  these  later  years  of  accomplished  flight 
that  the  machine  which  Langley  launched  on  the 
Potomac  River  in  October  of  1903  was  fully  capable 
of  sustained  flight,  and  only  the  accidents  incurred  in 
launching  prevented  its  pilot  from  being  the  first  man 
to  navigate  the  air  successfully  in  a  power-driven  machine. 
The  best  account  of  Langley's  work  is  that  diffused 
throughout  a  weighty  tome  issued  by  the  Smithsonian 
Institution,  entitled  the  Langley  Memoir  on  Mechanical 
Flight,  of  which  about  one-third  was  written  by  Langley 
himself,  the  remainder  being  compiled  by  Charles  M. 
Manly,  the  engineer  responsible  for  the  construction 
of  the  first  radial  aero-engine,  and  chief  assistant  to 

133 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

Langley  in  his  experiments.  To  give  a  twentieth  of 
the  contents  of  this  volume  in  the  present  short  account 
of  the  development  of  mechanical  flight  would  far 
exceed  the  amount  of  space  that  can  be  devoted  even 
to  so  eminent  a  man  in  aeronautics  as  S.  P.  Langley, 
who,  apart  from  his  achievement  in  the  construction 
of  a  power-driven  aeroplane  really  capable  of  flight, 
was  a  scientist  of  no  mean  order,  and  who  brought  to 
the  study  of  aeronautics  the  skill  of  the  trained  investi- 
gator allied  to  the  inventive  resource  of  the  genius. 

That  genius  exemplified  the  antique  saw  regarding 
the  infinite  capacity  for  taking  pains,  for  the  Langley 
Memoir  shows  that  as  early  as  1891  Langley  had 
completed  a  set  of  experiments,  lasting  through  years, 
which  proved  it  possible  to  construct  machines  giving 
such  a  velocity  to  inclined  surfaces  that  bodies  indefinitely 
heavier  than  air  could  be  sustained  upon  it  and  propelled 
through  it  at  high  speed.  For  full  account  (very  full) 
of  these  experiments,  and  of  a  later  series  leading  up  to 
the  construction  of  a  series  of  'model  aerodromes' 
capable  of  flight  under  power,  it  is  necessary  to  turn  to 
the  bulky  memoir  of  Smithsonian  origin. 

The  account  of  these  experiments  as  given  by 
Langley  himself  reveals  the  humility  of  the  true  investi- 
gator. Concerning  them,  Langley  remarks  that, 
'  Everything  here  has  been  done  with  a  view  to  putting 
a  trial  aerodrome  successfully  in  flight  within  a  few 
years,  and  thus  giving  an  early  demonstration  of  the 
only  kind  which  is  conclusive  in  the  eyes  of  the  scientific 
man,  as  well  as  of  the  general  public — a  demonstration 
that  mechanical  flight  is  possible — by  actually  flying. 
All  that  has  been  done  has  been  with  an  eye  principally 
to  this  immediate  result,  and  all  the  experiments  given 

134 


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SAMUEL  PIERPOINT  LANGLEY 

in  this  book  are  to  be  considered  only  as  approximations 
to  exact  truth.  All  were  made  with  a  view,  not  to  some 
remote  future,  but  to  an  arrival  within  the  compass  of 
a  few  years  at  some  result  in  actual  flight  that  could  not 
be  gainsaid  or  mistaken.' 

With  a  series  of  over  thirty  rubber-driven  models 
Langley  demonstrated  the  practicability  of  opposing 
curved  surfaces  to  the  resistance  of  the  air  in  such  a  way 
as  to  achieve  flight,  in  the  early  nineties  of  last  century; 
he  then  set  about  finding  the  motive  power  which  should 
permit  of  the  construction  of  larger  machines,  up  to 
man-carrying  size.  The  internal  combustion  engine 
was  then  an  unknown  quantity,  and  he  had  to  turn  to 
steam,  finally,  as  the  propulsive  energy  for  his  power 
plant.  The  chief  problem  which  faced  him  was  that  of 
the  relative  weight  and  power  of  his  engine;  he  harked 
back  to  the  Stringfellow  engine  of  1868,  which  in  1889 
came  into  the  possession  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution 
as  a  historical  curiosity.  Rightly  or  wrongly  Langley 
concluded  on  examination  that  this  engine  never  had 
developed  and  never  could  develop  more  than  a  tenth 
of  the  power  attributed  to  it ;  consequently  he  abandoned 
the  idea  of  copying  the  Stringfellow  design  and  set 
about  making  his  own  engine. 

How  he  overcame  the  various  difficulties  that  faced 
him  and  constructed  a  steam-engine  capable  of  the 
task  allotted  to  it  forms  a  story  in  itself,  too  long  for 
recital  here.  His  first  power-driven  aerodrome  of  model 
size  was  begun  in  November  of  1891,  the  scale  of 
construction  being  decided  with  the  idea  that  it  should 
be  large  enough  to  carry  an  automatic  steering  apparatus 
which  would  render  the  machine  capable  of  maintaining 
a  long  and  steady  flight.  The  actual  weight  of  the 
H.A.  135  K 


A   HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

first  model  far  exceeded  the  theoretical  estimate,  and 
Langley  found  that  a  constant  increase  of  weight  under 
the  exigencies  of  construction  was  a  feature  which  could 
never  be  altogether  eliminated.  The  machine  was 
made  principally  of  steel,  the  sustaining  surfaces  being 
composed  of  silk  stretched  from  a  steel  tube  with  wooden 
attachments.  The  first  engines  were  the  oscillating 
type,  but  were  found  deficient  in  power.  This  led  to 
the  construction  of  single-acting  inverted  oscillating 
engines  with  high  and  low  pressure  cylinders,  and 
with  admission  and  exhaust  ports  to  avoid  the  complica- 
tion and  weight  of  eccentric '  and  valves.  Boiler  and 
furnace  had  to  be  specially  designed;  an  analysis  of 
sustaining  surfaces  and  the  settlement  of  equilibrium 
while  in  flight  had  to  be  overcome,  and  then  it  was 
possible  to  set  about  the  construction  of  the  series  of 
model  aerodromes  and  make  test  of  their  *  lift.' 

By  the  time  Langley  had  advanced  sufficiently  far 
to  consider  it  possible  to  conduct  experiments  in  the 
open  air,  even  with  these  models,  he  had  got  to  his 
fifth  aerodrome,  and  to  the  year  1894.  Certain  tests 
resulted  in  failure,  which  in  turn  resulted  in  further 
modifications  of  design,  mainly  of  the  engines.  By 
February  of  1895  Langley  reported  that  under  favour- 
able conditions  a  lift  of  nearly  sixty  per  cent  of  the  flying 
weight  was  secured,  but  although  this  was  much  more 
than  was  required  for  flight,  it  was  decided  to  postpone 
trials  until  two  machines  were  ready  for  the  test.  May, 
1896,  came  before  actual  trials  were  made,  when  one 
machine  proved  successful  and  another,  a  kter  design, 
failed.  The  difficulty  with  these  models  was  that  of 
securing  a  correct  angle  for  launching;  Langley  records 
how,  on  launching  one  machine,  it  rose  so  rapidly 

136 


SAMUEL  PIERPOINT  LANGLEY 

that  it  attained  an  angle  of  sixty  degrees  and  then  did 
a  tail  slide  into  the  water  with  its  engines  working  at 
full  speed,  after  advancing  nearly  forty  feet  and  remaining 
in  the  air  for  about  three  seconds.  Here,  Langley 
found  that  he  had  to  obtain  greater  rigidity  in  his  wings, 
owing  to  the  distortion  of  the  form  of  wing  under 
pressure,  and  how  he  overcame  this  difficulty  constitutes 
yet  another  story  too  long  for  the  telling  here. 

Field  trials  were  first  attempted  in  1893,  and 
Langley  blamed  his  launching  apparatus  for  their  total 
failure.  There  was  a  brief,  but  at  the  same  time  practical, 
success  in  model  flight  in  1894,  extending  to  between 
six  and  seven  seconds,  but  this  only  proved  the  need 
for  strengthening  of  the  wing.  In  1895  there  was 
practically  no  advance  toward  the  solution  of  the  problem, 
but  the  flights  of  May  6th  and  November  28th,  1896, 
were  notably  successful.  A  diagram  given  in  Langley's 
memoir  shows  the  track  covered  by  the  aerodrome  on 
these  two  flights ;  in  the  first  of  them  the  machine  made 
three  complete  circles,  covering  a  distance  of  3,200 
feet;  in  the  second,  that  of  November  28th,  the  distance 
covered  was  4,200  feet,  or  about  three-quarters  of  a 
mile,  at  a  speed  of  about  thirty  miles  an  hour. 

These  achievements  meant  a  good  deal;  they 
proved  mechanically  propelled  flight  possible.  The 
difference  between  them  and  such  experiments  as  were 
conducted  by  Clement  Ader,  Maxim,  and  others,  lay 
principally  in  the  fact  that  these  latter  either  did  or  did  not 
succeed  in  rising  into  the  air  once,  and  then,  either 
willingly  or  by  compulsion,  gave  up  the  quest,  while 
Langley  repeated  his  experiments  and  thus  attained  to 
actual  proof  of  the  possibilities  of  flight.  Like  these 
others,  however,  he  decided  in  1896  that  he  would  not 

137 


A  HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

undertake  the  construction  of  a  large  man-carrying 
machine.  In  addition  to  a  multitude  of  actual  duties, 
which  left  him  practically  no  time  available  for  original 
research,  he  had  as  an  adverse  factor  fully  ten  years  of 
disheartening  difficulties  in  connection  with  his  model 
machines.  It  was  President  McKinley  who,  by  request- 
ing Langley  to  undertake  the  construction  and  test  of  a 
machine  which  might  finally  lead  to  the  development 
of  a  flying  machine  capable  of  being  used  in  warfare, 
egged  him  on  to  his  final  experiment.  Langley's  accept- 
ance of  the  offer  to  construct  such  a  machine  is  contained 
in  a  letter  addressed  from  the  Smithsonian  Institution 
on  December  i2th,  1898,  to  the  Board  of  Ordnance 
and  Fortification  of  the  United  States  War  Department; 
this  letter  is  of  such  interest  as  to  render  it  worthy  of 
reproduction : — 

*  Gentlemen, — In    response    to    your    invitation    I 
repeat  what  I  had  the  honour  to  say  to  the  Board — 
that  I  am  willing,  with  the  consent  of  the  Regents  of 
this  Institution,  to  undertake  for  the  Government  the 
further  investigation  of  the  subject  of  the  construction 
of  a  flying  machine  on  a  scale  capable  of  carrying  a  man, 
the  investigation  to  include  the  construction,  develop- 
ment and  test  of  such  a  machine  under  conditions  left 
as  far  as  practicable  in  my  discretion,  it  being  understood 
that  my  services  are  given  to  the  Government  in  such 
time  as  may  not  be  occupied  by  the  business  of  the 
Institution,  and  without  charge. 

*  I  have  reason  to  believe  that  the  cost  of  the  con- 
struction  will    come    within    the   sum    of    $50,000*00, 
and  that  not  more  than  one-half  of  that  will  be  called 
for  in  the  coming  year. 

'  I  entirely  agree  with  what  I  understand  to  be  the 

138 


SAMUEL  PIERPOINT  LANGLEY 

wish  of  the  Board  that  privacy  be  observed  with  regard 
to  the  work,  and  only  when  it  reaches  a  successful 
completion  shall  I  wish  to  make  public  the  fact  of  its 
success. 

'  I  attach  to  this  a  memorandum  of  my  understanding 
of  some  points  of  detail  in  order  to  be  sure  that  it  is  also 
the  understanding  of  the  Board,  and  I  am,  gentlemen, 
with  much  respect,  your  obedient  servant,  S.  P.  Langley.' 

One  of  the  chief  problems  in  connection  with  the 
construction  of  a  full-sized  apparatus  was  that  of  the 
construction  of  an  engine,  for  it  was  realised  from  the 
first  that  a  steam  power  plant  for  a  full-sized  machine 
could  only  be  constructed  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  it 
a  constant  menace  to  the  machine  which  it  was  to  propel. 
By  this  time  (1898)  the  internal  combustion  engine 
had  so  far  advanced  as  to  convince  Langley  that  it 
formed  the  best  power  plant  available.  A  contract  was 
made  for  the  delivery  of  a  twelve  horse-power  engine 
to  weigh  not  more  than  a  hundred  pounds,  but  this 
contract  was  never  completed,  and  it  fell  to  Charles  M. 
Manly  to  design  the  five-cylinder  radial  engine,  of 
which  a  brief  account  is  included  in  the  section  of  this 
work  devoted  to  aero  engines,  as  the  power  plant  for  the 
Langley  machine. 

The  history  of  the  years  1899  to  1903  in  the  Langley 
series  of  experiments  contains  a  multitude  of  detail 
far  beyond  the  scope  of  this  present  study,  and  of  interest 
mainly  to  the  designer.  There  were  frames,  engines, 
and  propellers,  to  be  considered,  worked  out,  and 
constructed.  We  are  concerned  here  mainly  with  the 
completed  machine  and  its  trials.  Of  these  latter  it 
must  be  remarked  that  the  only  two  actual  field  trials 
which  took  place  resulted  in  accidents  due  to  the  failure 

139 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

of  the  launching  apparatus,  -and  not  due  to  any  inherent 
defect  in  the  machine.  It  was  intended  that  these  two 
trials  should  be  the  first  of  a  series,  but  the  unfortunate 
accidents,  and  the  fact  that  no  further  funds  were  forth- 
coming for  continuance  of  experiments,  prevented 
Langley's  success,  which,  had  he  been  free  to  go  through 
as  he  intended  with  his  work,  would  have  been  certain. 
The  best  brief  description  of  the  Langley  aerodrome 
in  its  final  form,  and  of  the  two  attempted  trials,  is 
contained  in  the  official  report  of  Major  M.  M.  Macomb 
of  the  United  States  Artillery  Corps,  which  report  is 
here  given  in  full : — 

REPORT 

Experiments  with  working  models  which  were 
concluded  August  8  last  having  proved  the  principles 
and  calculations  on  which  the  design  of  the  Langley 
aerodrome  was  based  to  be  correct,  the  next  step  was 
to  apply  these  principles  to  the  construction  of  a  machine 
of  sufficient  size  and  power  to  permit  the  carrying  of 
a  man,  who  could  control  the  motive  power  and  guide 
its  flight,  thus  pointing  the  way  to  attaining  the  final 
goal  of  producing  a  machine  capable  of  such  extensive 
and  precise  aerial  flight,  under  normal  atmospheric 
conditions,  as  to  prove  of  military  or  commercial  utility. 

Mr  C.  M.  Manly,  working  under  Professor  Langley, 
had,  by  the  summer  of  1903,  succeeded  in  completing 
an  engine-driven  machine  which  under  favourable 
atmospheric  conditions  was  expected  to  carry  a  man 
for  any  time  up  to  half  an  hour,  and  to  be  capable  of 
having  its  flight  directed  and  controlled  by  him. 

The  supporting  surface  of  the  wings  was  ample, 

140 


SAMUEL  PIERPOINT  LANGLEY 

and  experiment  showed  the  engine  capable  of  supplying 
more  than  the  necessary  motive  power. 

Owing  to  the  necessity  of  lightness,  the  weight  of 
the  various  elements  had  to  be  kept  at  a  minimum, 
and  the  factor  of  safety  in  construction  was  therefore 
exceedingly  small,  so  that  the  machine  as  a  whole  was 
delicate  and  frail  and  incapable  of  sustaining  any  unusual 
strain.  This  defect  was  to  be  corrected  in  later  models 
by  utilising  data  gathered  in  future  experiments  under 
varied  conditions. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  results  attained  was 
the  production  of  a  gasoline  engine  furnishing  over 
fifty  continuous  horse-power  for  a  weight  of  120  Ibs. 

The  aerodrome,  as  completed  and  prepared  for 
test,  is  briefly  described  by  Professor  Langley  as  '  built 
of  steel,  weighing  complete  about  730  Ibs.,  supported 
by  1,040  feet  of  sustaining  surface,  having  two  pro- 
pellers driven  by  a  gas  engine  developing  continuously 
over  fifty  brake  horse-power.' 

The  appearance  of  the  machine  prepared  for  flight 
was  exceedingly  light  and  graceful,  giving  an  impression 
to  all  observers  of  being  capable  of  successful  flight. 

On  October  7  last  everything  was  in  readiness,  and 
I  witnessed  the  attempted  trial  on  that  day  at  Widewater, 
Va.,  on  the  Potomac.  The  engine  worked  well  and 
the  machine  was  launched  at  about  12.15  p.m.  The 
trial  was  unsuccessful  because  the  front  guy-post  caught 
in  its  support  on  the  launching  car  and  was  not  released 
in  time  to  give  free  flight,  as  was  intended,  but,  on  the 
contrary,  caused  the  front  of  the  machine  to  be  dragged 
downward,  bending  the  guy-post  and  making  the 
machine  plunge  into  the  water  about  fifty  yards  in 
front  of  the  house-boat.  The  machine  was  subsequently 

141 


A  HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

recovered  and  brought  back  to  the  house-boat.  The 
engine  was  uninjured  and  the  frame  only  slightly 
damaged,  but  the  four  wings  and  rudder  were  practically 
destroyed  by  the  first  plunge  and  subsequent  towing 
back  to  the  house-boat.  This  accident  necessitated 
the  removal  of  the  house-boat  to  Washington  for  the 
more  convenient  repair  of  damages. 

On  December  8  last,  between  4  and  5- p.m.,  another 
attempt  at  a  trial  was  made,  this  time  at  the  junction  of 
the  Anacostia  with  the  Potomac,  just  below  Washington 
Barracks. 

On  this  occasion  General  Randolph  and  myself 
represented  the  Board  of  Ordnance  and  Fortification. 
The  launching  car  was  released  at  4.45  p.m.  being 
pointed  up  the  Anacostia  towards  the  Navy  Yard. 
My  position  was  on  the  tug  Bartholdi,  about  150  feet 
from  and  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  of  proposed 
flight.  The  car  was  set  in  motion  and  the  propellers 
revolved  rapidly,  the  engine  working  perfectly,  but 
there  was  something  wrong  with  the  launching.  The 
rear  guy-post  seemed  to  drag,  bringing  the  rudder 
down  on  the  launching  ways,  and  a  crashing,  rending 
sound,  followed  by  the  collapse  of  the  rear  wings, 
showed  that  the  machine  had  been  wrecked  in  the 
launching,  just  how,  it  was  impossible  for  me  to  see. 
The  fact  remains  that  the  rear  wings  and  rudder  were 
wrecked  before  the  machine  was  free  of  the  ways. 
Their  collapse  deprived  the  machine  of  its  support  in 
the  rear,  and  it  consequently  reared  up  in  front  under 
the  action  of  the  motor,  assumed  a  vertical  position, 
and  then  toppled  over  to  the  rear,  falling  into  the  water 
a  few  feet  in  front  of  the  boat. 

Mr  Manly  was  pulled  out  of  the  wreck  uninjured 

142 


Dynamometer  tests  of  engine  built  in  the  Smithsonian 
shops  for  the  full-size  Langley  Aerodrome. 

Langley  Memoir  on  Mechanical  Flight,  Smithsonian  Institution,  Washington. 

To  face  page  142 


SAMUEL  PIERPOINT  LANGLEY 

and  the  wrecked  machine  was  subsequently  placed 
upon  the  house-boat,  and  the  whole  brought  back  to 
Washington. 

From  what  has  been  said  it  will  be  seen  that  these 
unfortunate  accidents  have  prevented  any  test  of  the 
apparatus  in  free  flight,  and  the  claim  that  an  engine- 
driven,  man-carrying  aerodrome  has  been  constructed 
lacks  the  proof  which  actual  flight  alone  can  give. 

Having  reached  the  present  stage  of  advancement 
in  its  development,  it  would  seem  highly  desirable, 
before  laying  down  the  investigation,  to  obtain  con- 
clusive proof  of  the  possibility  of  free  flight,  not  only 
because  there  are  excellent  reasons  to  hope  for  success, 
but  because  it  marks  the  end  of  a  definite  step  toward 
the  attainment  of  the  final  goal. 

Just  what  further  procedure  is  necessary  to  secure 
successful  flight  with  the  large  aerodrome  has  not  yet 
been  decided  upon.  Professor  Langley  is  understood 
to  have  this  subject  under  advisement,  and  will  doubtless 
inform  the  Board  of  his  final  conclusions  as  soon  as 
practicable. 

In  the  meantime,  to  avoid  any  possible  misunder- 
standing, it  should  be  stated  that  even  after  a  successful 
test  of  the  present  great  aerodrome,  designed  to  carry 
a  man,  we  are  still  far  from  the  ultimate  goal,  and  it 
would  seem  as  if  years  of  constant  work  and  study  by 
experts,  together  with  the  expenditure  of  thousands 
of  dollars,  would  still  be  necessary  before  we  can  hope 
to  produce  an  apparatus  of  practical  utility  on  these  lines. 
— Washington,  January  6,  1904. 

A  subsequent  report  of  the  Board  of  Ordnance 
and  Fortification  to  the  Secretary  of  War  embodied  the 

143 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

principal  points  in  Major  MacombV  report,  but  as 
early  as  March  3rd,  1904,  the  Board  came  to  a  similar 
conclusion  to  that  of  the  French  Ministry  of  War  in 
respect  of  Clement  Ader's  work,  stating  that  it  was 
not  *  prepared  to  make  an  additional  allotment  at  this 
time  for  continuing  the  work/  This  decision  was  in  no 
small  measure  due  to  hostile  newspaper  criticisms. 
Langley,  in  a  letter  to  the  press  explaining  his  attitude, 
stated  that  he  did  not  wish  to  make  public  the  results 
of  his  work  till  these  were  certain,  in  consequence  of 
which  he  refused  admittance  to  newspaper  representa- 
tives, and  this  attitude  produced  a  hostility  which  had 
effect  on  the  United  States  Congress.  An  offer  was 
made  to  commercialise  the  invention,  but  Langley 
steadfastly  refused  it.  Concerning  this,  Manly  remarks 
that  Langley  had  '  given  his  time  and  his  best  labours 
to  the  world  without  hope  of  remuneration,  and  he 
could  not  bring  himself,  at  his  stage  of  life,  to  consent 
to  capitalise  his  scientific  work.' 

The  final  trial  of  the  Langley  aerodrome  was  made 
on  December  8th,  1903;  nine  days  later,  on  December 
1 7th,  the  Wright  Brothers  made  their  first  flight  in  a 
power-propelled  machine,  and  the  conquest  of  the  air 
was  thus  achieved.  But  for  the  two  accidents  that 
spoilt  his  trials,  the  honour  which  fell  to  the  Weight 
Brothers  would,  beyond  doubt,  have  been  secured  by 
Samuel  Pierpoint  Langley. 


144 


XI 

THE    WRIGHT    BROTHERS 

SUCH  information  as  is  given  here  concerning  the 
Wright  Brothers  is  derived  from  the  two  best  sources 
available,  namely,  the  writings  of  Wilbur  Wright 
himself,  and  a  lecture  given  by  Dr  Griffith  Brewer  to 
members  of  the  Royal  Aeronautical  Society.  There  is 
no  doubt  that  so  far  as  actual  work  in  connection  with 
aviation  accomplished  by  the  two  brothers  is  concerned, 
Wilbur  Wright's  own  statements  are  the  clearest  and 
best  available.  Apparently  Wilbur  was,  from  the 
beginning,  the  historian  of  the  pair,  though  he  himself 
would  have  been  the  last  to  attempt  to  detract  in  any 
way  from  the  fame  that  his  brother's  work  also  deserves. 
Throughout  all  their  experiments  the  two  were  in- 
separable, and  their  work  is  one  indivisible  whole; 
in  fact,  in  every  department  of  that  work,  it  is  impossible 
to  say  where  Orville  leaves  off  and  where  Wilbur  begins. 
It  is  a  great  story,  this  of  the  Wright  Brothers,  and 
one  worth  all  the  detail  that  can  be  spared  it.  It  begins 
on  the  1 6th  April,  1867,  when  Wilbur  Wright  was 
born  within  eight  miles  of  Newcastle,  Indiana.  Before 
Orville's  birth  on  the  I9th  August,  1871,  the  Wright 
family  had  moved  to  Dayton,  Ohio,  and  settled  on  what 
is  known  as  the  '  West  Side  '  of  the  town.  Here  the 
brothers  grew  up,  and,  when  Orville  was  still  a  boy  in 
his  teens,  he  started  a  printing  business,  which,  as 


A   HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

Griffith  Brewer  remarks,  was  only  limited  by  the  small- 
ness  of  his  machine  and  small  quantity  of  type  at  his 
disposal.  This  machine  was  in  such  a  state  that  pieces 
of  string  and  wood  were  incorporated  in  it  by  way  of 
repair,  but  on  it  Orville  managed  to  print  a  boys'  paper 
which  gained  considerable  popularity  in  Dayton  '  West 
Side/  Later,  at  the  age  of  seventeen,  he  obtained  a 
more  efficient  outfit,  with  which  he  launched  a  weekly 
newspaper,  four  pages  in  size,  entitled  The  West  Side 
News.  After  three  months'  running  the  paper  was 
increased  in  size  and  Wilbur  came  into  the  enterprise 
as  editor,  Orville  remaining  publisher.  In  1894  the 
two  brothers  began  the  publication  of  a  weekly  magazine, 
Snap-Shots,  to  which  Wilbur  contributed  a  series  of 
articles  on  local  affairs  that  gave  evidence  of  the  incisive 
and  often  sarcastic  manner  in  which  he  was  able  to 
express  himself  throughout  his  life.  Dr  Griffith  Brewer 
describes  him  as  a  fearless  critic,  who  wrote  on  matters 
of  local  interest  in  a  kindly  but  vigorous  manner,  which 
did  much  to  maintain  the  healthy  public  municipal  life 
of  Dayton. 

Editorial  and  publishing  enterprise  was  succeeded 
by  the  formation,  just  across  the  road  from  the  printing 
works,  of  the  Wright  Cycle  Company,  where  the  two 
brothers  launched  out  as  cycle  manufacturers  with 
the  '  Van  Cleve  '  bicycle,  a  machine  of  great  local  repute 
for  excellence  of  construction,  and  one  which  won  for 
itself  a  reputation  that  lasted  long  after  it  had  ceased 
to  be  manufactured.  The  name  of  the  machine  was 
that  of  an  ancestor  of  the  brothers,  Catherine  Van 
Cleve,  who  was  one  of  the  first  settlers  at  Dayton, 
landing  there  from  the  River  Miami  on  April  ist,  1796, 
when  the  country  was  virgin  forest. 

146 


THE  WRIGHT  BROTHERS 

It  was  not  until  1896  that  the  mechanical  genius 
which  characterised  the  two  brothers  was  turned  to  the 
consideration,  of  aeronautics.  In  that  year  they  took 
up  the  problem  thoroughly,  studying  all  the  aeronautical 
information  then  in  print.  Lilienthal's  writings  formed 
one  basis  for  their  studies,  and  the  work  of  Langley 
assisted  in  establishing  in  them  a  confidence  in  the 
possibility  of  a  solution  to  the  problems  of  mechanical 
flight.  In  1909,  at  the  banquet  given  by  the  Royal 
Aero  Club  to  the  Wright  Brothers  on  their  return  to 
America,  after  the  series  of  demonstration  flights 
carried  out  by  Wilbur  Wright  on  the  Continent,  Wilbur 
paid  tribute  to  the  great  pioneer  work  of  Stringfellow, 
whose  studies  and  achievements  influenced  his  own 
and  Orville's  early  work.  He  pointed  out  how  String- 
fellow  devised  an  aeroplane  having  two  propellers  and 
vertical  and  horizontal  steering,  and  gave  due  place  to 
this  early  pioneer  of  mechanical  flight. 

Neither  of  the  brothers  was  content  with  mere 
study  of  the  work  of  others.  They  collected  all  the 
theory  available  in  the  books  published  up  to  that  time, 
and  then  built  man-carrying  gliders  with  which  to  test 
the  data  of  Lilienthal  and  such  other  authorities  as 
they  had  consulted.  For  two  years  they  conducted 
outdoor  experiments  in  order  to  test  the  truth  or  otherwise 
of  what  were  enunciated  as  the  principles  of  flight; 
after  this  they  turned  to  laboratory  experiments,  con- 
structing a  wind  tunnel  in  which  they  made  thousands 
of  tests  with  models  of  various  forms  of  curved  planes. 
From  their  experiments  they  tabulated  thousands  of 
readings,  which  Griffith  Brewer  remarks  as  giving 
results  equally  efficient  with  those  of  the  elaborate 
tables  prepared  by  learned  institutions. 

H7 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

Wilbur  Wright  has  set  down  the  beginnings  of  the 
practical  experiments  made  by  the  two  brothers  very 
clearly.  *  The  difficulties/  he  says,  *  which  obstruct 
the  pathway  to  success  in  flying  machine  construction 
are  of  three  general  classes:  (i)  Those  which  relate  to 
the  construction  of  the  sustaining  wings;  (2)  those 
which  relate  to  the  generation  and  application  of  the 
power  required  to  drive  the  machine  through  the  air; 
(3)  those  relating  to  the  balancing  and  steering  of  the 
machine  after  it  is  actually  in  flight.  Of  these  difficulties 
two  are  already  to  a  certain  extent  solved.  Men  already 
know  how  to  construct  wings,  or  aeroplanes,  which, 
when  driven  through  the  air  at  sufficient  speed,  will  not 
only  sustain  the  weight  of  the  wings  themselves,  but 
also  that  of  the  engine  and  the  engineer  as  well.  Men 
also  know  how  to  build  engines  and  screws  of  sufficient 
lightness  and  power  to  drive  these  planes  at  sustaining 
speed.  Inability  to  balance  and  steer  still  confronts 
students  of  the  flying  problem,  although  nearly  ten 
years  have  passed  (since  Lilienthal's  success).  When 
this  one  feature  has  been  worked  out,  the  age  of  flying 
machines  will  have  arrived,  for  all  other  difficulties  are 
of  minor  importance. 

'  The  person  who  merely  watches  the  flight  of  a 
bird  gathers  the  impression  that  the  bird  has  nothing 
to  think  of  but  the  flapping  of  its  wings.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  this  is  a  very  small  part  of  its  mental  labour. 
Even  to  mention  all  the  things  the  bird  must  constantly 
keep  in  mind  in  order  to  fly  securely  through  the  air 
would  take  a  considerable  time.  If  I  take  a  piece  of 
paper  and,  after  placing  it  parallel  with  the  ground, 
quickly  let  it  fall,  it  will  not  settle  steadily  down  as  a 
staid,  sensible  piece  of  paper  ought  to  do,  but  it  insists 

148 


THE  WRIGHT  BROTHERS 

on  contravening  every  recognised  rule  of  decorum, 
turning  over  and  darting  hither  and  thither  in  the  most 
erratic  manner,  much  after  the  style  of  an  untrained 
horse.  Yet  this  is  the  style  of  steed  that  men  must 
learn  to  manage  before  flying  can  become  an  everyday 
sport.  The  bird  has  learned  this  art  of  equilibrium, 
and  learned  it  so  thoroughly  that  its  skill  is  not  apparent 
to  our  sight.  We  only  learn  to  appreciate  it  when  we 
can  imitate  it. 

*  Now,  there  are  only  two  ways  of  learning  to  ride 
a  fractious  horse:  one  is  to  get  on  him  and  learn  by 
actual  practice  how  each  motion  and  trick  may  be  best 
met;  the  other  is  to  sit  on  a  fence  and  watch  the  beast 
awhile,  and  then  retire  to  the  house  and  at  leisure  figure 
out  the  best  way  of  overcoming  his  jumps  and  kicks. 
The  latter  system  is  the  safer,  but  the  former,  on  the 
whole,  turns  out  the  larger  proportion  of  good  riders. 
It  is  very  much  the  same  in  learning  to  ride  a  flying 
machine;  if  you  are  looking  for  perfect  safety  you  will 
do  well  to  sit  on  a  fence  and  watch  the  birds,  but  if  you 
really  wish  to  learn  you  must  mount  a  machine  and 
become  acquainted  with  its  tricks  by  actual  trial.  The 
balancing  of  a  gliding  or  flying  machine  is  very  simple 
in  theory.  It  merely  consists  in  causing  the  centre  of 
pressure  to  coincide  with  the  centre  of  gravity/ 

These  comments  are  taken  from  a  lecture  delivered 
by  Wilbur  Wright  before  the  Western  Society  of 
Engineers  in  September  of  1901,  under  the  presidency 
of  Octave  Chanute.  In  that  lecture  Wilbur  detailed 
the  way  in  which  he  and  his  brother  came  to  interest 
themselves  in  aeronautical  problems  and  constructed 
their  first  glider.  He  speaks  of  his  own  notice  of  the 
death  of  Lilienthal  in  1896,  and  of  the  way  in  which 

149 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

this  fatality  roused  him  to  an  active  interest  in  aeronautical 
problems,  which  was  stimulated  by  reading  Professor 
Marey's  Animal  Mechanism^  not  for  the  first  time. 
*  From  this  I  was  led  to  read  more  modern  works,  and 
as  my  brother  soon  became  equally  interested  with  myself, 
we  soon  passed  from  the  reading  to  the  thinking,  and 
finally  to  the  working  stage.  It  seemed  to  us  that  the 
main  reason  why  the  problem  had  remained  so  long 
unsolved  was  that  no  one  had  been  able  to  obtain  any 
adequate  practice.  We  figured  that  Lilienthal  in  five 
years  of  time  had  spent  only  about  five  hours  in  actual 
gliding  through  the  air.  The  wonder  was  not  that  he 
had  done  so  little,  but  that  he  had  accomplished  so 
much.  It  would  not  be  considered  at  all  safe  for  a 
bicycle  rider  to  attempt  to  ride  through  a  crowded  city 
street  after  only  five  hours*  practice,  spread  out  in  bits 
of  ten  seconds  each  over  a  period  of  five  years;  yet 
Lilienthal  with  this  brief  practice  was  remarkably 
successful  in  meeting  the  fluctuations  and  eddies  of 
wind-gusts.  We  thought  that  if  some  method  could 
be  found  by  which  it  would  be  possible  to  practise  by 
the  hour  instead  of  by  the  second  there  would  be  hope 
of  advancing  the  solution  of  a  very  difficult  problem. 
It  seemed  feasible  to  do  this  by  building  a  machine 
which  would  be  sustained  at  a  speed  of  eighteen  miles 
per  hour,  and  then  finding  a  locality  where  winds  of 
this  velocity  were  common.  With  these  conditions  a 
rope  attached  to  the  machine  to  keep  it  from  floating 
backward  would  answer  very  nearly  the  same  purpose 
as  a  propeller  driven  by  a  motor,  and  it  would  be  possible 
to  practise  by  the  hour,  and  without  any  serious  danger, 
as  it  would  not  be  necessary  to  rise  far  from  the  ground, 
and  the  machine  would  not  have  any  forward  motion 

150 


Wilbur  Wright. 


To  face-  Page  150 


' 
THE  WRIGHT  BROTHERS 

at  all.  We  found,  according  to  the  accepted  tables  of 
air  pressure  on  curved  surfaces,  that  a  machine  spreading 
200  square  feet  of  wing  surface  would  be  sufficient  for 
our  purpose,  and  that  places  would  easily  be  found 
along  the  Atlantic  coast  where  winds  of  sixteen  to 
twenty-five  miles  were  not  at  all  uncommon.  When 
the  winds  were  low  it  was  our  plan  to  glide  from  the 
tops  of  sandhills,  and  when  they  were  sufficiently  strong 
to  use  a  rope  for  our  motor  and  fly  over  one  spot.  Our 
next  work  was  to  draw  up  the  plans  for  a  suitable 
machine.  After  much  study  we  finally  concluded  that 
tails  were  a  source  of  trouble  rather  than  of  assistance, 
and  therefore  we  decided  to  dispense  with  them  altogether. 
It  seemed  reasonable  that  if  the  body  of  the  operator 
could  be  placed  in  a  horizontal  position  instead  of  the 
upright,  as  in  the  machines  of  Lilienthal,  Pilcher,  and 
Chanute,  the  wind  resistance  could  be  very  materially 
reduced,  since  only  one  square  foot  instead  of  five 
would  be  exposed.  As  a  full  half  horse-power  would 
be  saved  by  this  change,  we  arranged  to  try  at  least 
the  horizontal  position.  Then  the  method  of  control 
used  by  Lilienthal,  which  consisted  in  shifting  the 
body,  did  not  seem  quite  as  quick  or  effective  as  the 
case  required;  so,  after  long  study,  we  contrived  a 
system  consisting  of  two  large  surfaces  on  the  Chanute 
double-deck  plan,  and  a  smaller  surface  placed  a  short 
distance  in  front  of  the  main  surfaces  in  such  a  position 
that  the  action  of  the  wind  upon  it  would  counterbalance 
the  effect  of  the  travel  of  the  centre  of  pressure  on  the 
main  surfaces.  Thus  changes  in  the  direction  and 
velocity  of  the  wind  would  have  little  disturbing  effect, 
and  the  operator  would  be  required  to  attend  only  to 
the  steering  of  the  machine,  which  was  to  be  effected 
H.A.  151  L 


A  HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

by  curving  the  forward  surface  up  or  down.  The  lateral 
equilibrium  and  the  steering  to  right  or  left  was  to  be 
attained  by  a  peculiar  torsion  of  the  main  surfaces, 
which  was  equivalent  to  presenting  one  end  of  the 
wings  at  a  greater  angle  than  the  other.  In  the  main 
frame  a  few  changes  were  also  made  in  the  details  of 
construction  and  trussing  employed  by  Mr  Chanute. 
The  most  important  of  these  were:  (i)  The  moving  of 
the  forward  main  crosspiece  of  the  frame  to  the  extreme 
front  edge;  (2)  the  encasing  in  the  cloth  of  all  crosspieces 
and  ribs  of  the  surfaces;  (3)  a  rearrangement  of  the 
wires  used  in  trussing  the  two  surfaces  together,  which 
rendered  it  possible  to  tighten  all  the  wires  by  simply 
shortening  two  of  them/ 

The  brothers  intended  originally  to  get  200  square 
feet  of  supporting  surface  for  their  glider,  but  the 
impossibility  of  obtaining  suitable  material  compelled 
them  to  reduce  the  area  to  165  square  feet,  which,  by 
the  Lilienthal  tables,  admitted  of  support  in  a  wind  of 
about  twenty-one  miles  an  hour  at  an  angle  of  three 
degrees.  With  this  glider  they  went  in  the  summer  of 
1900  to  the  little  settlement  of  Kitty  Hawk,  North 
Carolina,  situated  on  the  strip  of  land  dividing  Albemarle 
Sound  from  the  Atlantic.  Here  they  reckoned  on 
obtaining  steady  wind,  and  here,  on  the  day  that  they 
completed  the  machine,  they  took  it  out  for  trial  as  a 
kite  with  the  wind  blowing  at  between  twenty-five  and 
thirty  miles  an  hour.  They  found  that  in  order  to 
support  a  man  on  it  the  glider  required  an  angle  nearer 
twenty  degrees  than  three,  and  even  with  the  wind  at 
thirty  miles  an  hour  they  could  not  get  down  to  the 
planned  angle  of  three  degrees.  Later,  when  the  wind 
was  too  light  to  support  the  machine  with  a  man  on  it, 

152 


THE  WRIGHT  BROTHERS 

they  tested  it  as  a  kite,  working  the  rudders  by  cords. 
Although  they  obtained  satisfactory  results  in  this  way 
they  realised  fully  that  actual  gliding  experience  was 
necessary  before  the  tests  could  be  considered  practical. 

A  series  of  actual  measurements  of  lift  and  drift  of 
the  machine  gave  astonishing  results.  '  It  appeared 
that  the  total  horizontal  pull  of  the  machine,  while 
sustaining  a  weight  of  52  Ibs.,  was  only  8.5  Ibs.,  which 
was  less  than  had  been  previously  estimated  for  head 
resistance  of  the  framing  alone.  Making  allowance 
for  the  weight  carried,  it  appeared  that  the  head  resistance 
of  the  framing  was  but  little  more  than  fifty  per  cent  of 
the  amount  which  Mr  Chanute  had  estimated  as  the 
head  resistance  of  the  framing  of  his  machine.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  appeared  sadly  deficient  in  lifting  power 
as  compared  with  the  calculated  lift  of  curved  surfaces 
of  its  size  ...  we  decided  to  arrange  our  machine 
for  the  following  year  so  that  the  depth  of  curvature  of 
its  surfaces  could  be  varied  at  will,  and  its  covering 
air-proofed.* 

After  these  experiments  the  brothers  decided  to 
turn  to  practical  gliding,  for  which  they  moved  four 
miles  to  the  south,  to  the  Kill  Devil  sandhills,  the 
principal  of  which  is  slightly  over  a  hundred  feet  in 
height,  with  an  inclination  of  nearly  ten  degrees  on  its 
main  north-western  slope.  On  the  day  after  their 
arrival  they  made  about  a  dozen  glides,  in  which,  although 
the  landings  were  made  at  a  speed  of  more  than  twenty 
miles  an  hour,  no  injury  was  sustained  either  by  the 
machine  or  by  the  operator. 

*  The  slope  of  the  hill  was  9.5  degrees,  or  a  drop  of 
one  foot  in  six.  We  found  that  after  attaining  a  speed 
of  about  twenty-five  to  thirty  miles  with  reference  to 

'53 


A  HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

the  wind,  or  ten  to  fifteen  miles  over  the  ground,  the 
machine  not  only  glided  parallel  to  the  slope  of  the  hill, 
but  greatly  increased  its  speed,  thus  indicating  its 
ability  to  glide  on  a  somewhat  less  angle  than  9.5  degrees, 
when  we  should  feel  it  safe  to  rise  higher  from  the 
surface.  The  control  of  the  machine  proved  even 
better  than  we  had  dared  to  expect,  responding  quickly 
to  the  slightest  motion  of  the  rudder.  With  these 
glides  our  experiments  for  the  year  1900  closed. 
Although  the  hours  and  hours  of  practice  we  had  hoped 
to  obtain  finally  dwindled  down  to  about  two  minutes, 
we  were  very  much  pleased  with  the  general  results  of 
the  trip,  for,  setting  out  as  we  did  with  almost  revolu- 
tionary theories  on  many  points  and  an  entirely  untried 
form  of  machine,  we  considered  it  quite  a  point  to  be 
able  to  return  without  having  our  pet  theories  completely 
knocked  on  the  head  by  the  hard  logic  of  experience, 
and  our  own  brains  dashed  out  in  the  bargain.  Every- 
thing seemed  to  us  to  confirm  the  correctness  of  our 
original  opinions:  (i)  That  practice  is  the  key  to  the 
secret  of  flying;  (2)  that  it  is  practicable  to  assume  the 
horizontal  position;  (3)  that  a  smaller  surface  set  at  a 
negative  angle  in  front  of  the  main  bearing  surfaces, 
or  wings,  will  largely  counteract  the  effect  of  the  fore 
and  aft  travel  of  the  centre  of  pressure ;  (4)  that  steering 
up  and  down  can  be  attained  with  a  rudder  without 
moving  the  position  of  the  operator's  body;  (5)  that 
twisting  the  wings  so  as  to  present  their  ends  to  the 
wind  at  different  angles  is  a  more  prompt  and  efficient 
way  of  maintaining  lateral  equilibrium  than  shifting 
the  body  of  the  operator.' 

For  the  gliding  experiments  of  1901  it  was  decided 
to  retain  the  form  of  the  1900  glider,  but  to  increase 

'54 


Wilbur  Wright  in  a  high  glide,  1903. 


Orville  Wright  making  the  world's  record  in  gliding  flight, 

10  minutes  1  second,  stationary  against  a  wind  of  25  miles 

per  hour,  east  of  Kill  Devil  Hill. 

To  face  page  155 


THE  WRIGHT  BROTHERS 

the  area  to  308  square  feet,  which,  the  brothers  calculated, 
would  support  itself  and  its  operator  in  a  wind  of 
seventeen  miles  an  hour  with  an  angle  of  incidence  of 
three  degrees.  Camp  was  formed  at  Kitty  Hawk  in  the 
middle  of  July,  and  on  July  27th  the  machine  was 
completed  and  tried  for  the  first  time  in  a  wind  of  about 
fourteen  miles  an  hour.  The  first  attempt  resulted  in 
landing  after  a  glide  of  only  a  few  yards,  indicating 
that  the  centre  of  gravity  was  too  far  in  front  of  the 
centre  of  pressure.  By  shifting  his  position  farther  and 
farther  back  the  operator  finally  achieved  an  undulating 
flight  of  a  little  over  300  feet,  but  to  obtain  this  success 
he  had  to  use  full  power  of  the  rudder  to  prevent  both 
stalling  and  nose-diving.  With  the  1900  machine  one- 
fourth  of  the  rudder  action  had  been  necessary  for  far 
better  control. 

Practically  all  glides  gave  the  same  result,  and  in 
one  the  machine  rose  higher  and  higher  until  it  lost  all 
headway.  *  This  was  the  position  from  which  Lilienthal 
had  always  found  difficulty  in  extricating  himself,  as  his 
machine  then,  in  spite  of  his  greatest  exertions,  mani- 
fested a  tendency  to  dive  downward  almost  vertically 
and  strike  the  ground  head  on  with  frightful  velocity. 
In  this  case  a  warning  cry  from  the  ground  caused  the 
operator  to  turn  the  rudder  to  its  full  extent  and  also  to 
move  his  body  slightly  forward.  The  machine  then 
settled  slowly  to  the  ground,  maintaining  its  horizontal 
position  almost  perfectly,  and  landed  without  any  injury 
at  all.  This  was  very  encouraging,  as  it  showed  that 
one  of  the  very  greatest  dangers  in  machines  with 
horizontal  tails  had  been  overcome  by  the  use  of  the 
front  rudder.  Several  glides  later  the  same  experience 
was  repeated  with  the  same  result.  In  the  latter  case 


A  HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

the  machine  had  even  commenced  to  move  backward, 
but  was  nevertheless  brought  safely  to  the  ground  in  a 
horizontal  position.  On  the  whole  this  day's  experiments 
were  encouraging,  for  while  the  action  of  the  rudder 
did  not  seem  at  all  like  that  of  our  1900  machine,  yet 
we  had  escaped  without  difficulty  from  positions  which 
had  proved  very  dangerous  to  preceding  experimenters, 
and  after  less  than  one  minute's  actual  practice  had 
made  a  glide  of  more  than  300  feet,  at  an  angle  of  descent 
of  ten  degrees,  and  with  a  machine  nearly  twice  as  large 
as  had  previously  been  considered  safe.  The  trouble 
with  its  control,  which  has  been  mentioned,  we  believed 
could  be  corrected  when  we  should  have  located  its 
cause.' 

It  was  finally  ascertained  that  the  defect  could  be 
remedied  by  trussing  down  the  ribs  of  the  whole  machine 
so  as  to  reduce  the  depth  of  curvature.  When  this  had 
been  done  gliding  was  resumed,  and  after  a  few  trials 
glides  of  366  and  389  feet  were  made  with  prompt 
response  on  the  part  of  the  machine,  even  to  small 
movements  of  the  rudder.  The  rest  of  the  story  of 
the  gliding  experiments  of  1901  cannot  be  better  told 
than  in  Wilbur  Wright's  own  words,  as  uttered  by  him 
in  the  lecture  from  which  the  foregoing  excerpts  have 
been  made. 

*  The  machine,  with  its  new  curvature,  never  failed 
to  respond  promptly  to  even  small  movements  of  the 
rudder.  The  operator  could  cause  it  to  almost  skim 
the  ground,  following  the  undulations  of  its  surface, 
or  he  could  cause  it  to  sail  out  almost  on  a  level  with 
the  starting  point,  and,  passing  high  above  the  foot  of 
the  hill,  gradually  settle  down  to  the  ground.  The 
wind  on  this  day  was  blowing  eleven  to  fourteen  miles 


THE  WRIGHT  BROTHERS 

per  hour.  The  next  day,  the  conditions  being  favour- 
able, the  machine  was  again  taken  out  for  trial.  This 
time  the  velocity  of  the  wind  was  eighteen  to  twenty-two 
miles  per  hour.  At  first  we  felt  some  doubt  as  to  the 
safety  of  attempting  free  flight  in  so  strong  a  wind, 
with  a  machine  of  over  300  square  feet  and  a  practice  of 
less  than  five  minutes  spent  in  actual  flight.  But  after 
several  preliminary  experiments  we  decided  to  try  a 
glide.  The  control  of  the  machine  seemed  so  good 
that  we  then  felt  no  apprehension  in  sailing  boldly 
forth.  And  thereafter  we  made  glide  after  glide,  some- 
times following  the  ground  closely  and  sometimes 
sailing  high  in  the  air.  Mr  Chanute  had  his  camera 
with  him  and  took  pictures  of  some  of  these  glides, 
several  of  which  are  among  those  shown. 

*  We  made  glides  on  subsequent  days,  whenever 
the  conditions  were  favourable.  The  highest  wind 
thus  experimented  in  was  a  little  over  twelve  metres 
per  second — nearly  twenty-seven  miles  per  hour. 

It  had  been  our  intention  when  building  the  machine 
to  do  the  larger  part  of  the  experimenting  in  the  following 
manner: — When  the  wind  blew  seventeen  miles  an 
hour,  or  more,  we  would  attach  a  rope  to  the  machine 
and  let  it  rise  as  a  kite  with  the  operator  upon  it.  When 
it  should  reach  a  proper  height  the  operator  would 
cast  off  the  rope  and  glide  down  to  the  ground  just  as 
from  the  top  of  a  hill.  In  this  way  we  would  be  saved 
the  trouble  of  carrying  the  machine  uphill  after  each 
glide,  and  could  make  at  least  ten  glides  in  the  time 
required  for  one  in  the  other  way.  But  when  we  came 
to  try  it,  we  found  that  a  wind  of  seventeen  miles,  as 
measured  by  Richards*  anemometer,  instead  of  sustaining 
the  machine  with  its  operator,  a  total  weight  of  240  Ibs., 

157 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

at  an  angle  of  incidence  of  three  degrees,  in  reality 
would  not  sustain  the  machine  alone — 100  Ibs. — at 
this  angle.  Its  lifting  capacity  seemed  scarcely  one  third 
of  the  calculated  amount.  In  order  to  make  sure  that 
this  was  not  due  to  the  porosity  of  the  cloth,  we  con- 
structed two  small  experimental  surfaces  of  equal  size, 
one  of  which  was  air-proofed  and  the  other  left  in  its 
natural  state;  but  we  could  detect  no  difference  in 
their  lifting  powers.  For  a  time  we  were  led  to  suspect 
that  the  lift  of  curved  surfaces  very  little  exceeded  that 
of  planes  of  the  same  size,  but  further  investigation  and 
experiment  led  to  the  opinion  that  (i)  the  anemometer 
used  by  us  over-recorded  the  true  velocity  of  the  wind  by 
nearly  15  per  cent;  (2)  that  the  well-known  Smeaton 
co-efficient  of  .005  V2  for  the  wind  pressure  at  90  degrees 
is  probably  too  great  by  at  least  20  per  cent;  (3)  that 
Lilienthal's  estimate  that  the  pressure  on  a  curved 
surface  having  an  angle  of  incidence  of  3  degrees  equals 
.545  of  the  pressure  at  90  degrees  is  too  large,  being 
nearly  50  per  cent  greater  than  very  recent  experiments 
of  our  own  with  a  pressure  testing-machine  indicate; 
(4)  that  the  superposition  of  the  surfaces  somewhat 
reduced  the  lift  per  square  foot,  as  compared  with  a 
single  surface  of  equal  area. 

*  In  gliding  experiments,  however,  the  amount  of 
lift  is  of  less  relative  importance  than  the  ratio  of  lift 
to  drift,  as  this  alone  decides  the  angle  of  gliding 
descent.  In  a  plane  the  pressure  is  always  perpendicular 
to  the  surface,  and  the  ratio  of  lift  to  drift  is  therefore 
the  same  as  that  of  the  cosine  to  the  sine  of  the  angle  of 
incidence.  But  in  curved  surfaces  a  very  remarkable 
situation  is  found.  The  pressure,  instead  of  being 
uniformly  normal  to  the  chord  of  the  arc,  is  usually 


THE  WRIGHT  BROTHERS 

inclined  considerably  in  front  of  the  perpendicular. 
The  result  is  that  the  lift  is  greater  and  the  drift  less 
than  if  the  pressure  were  normal.  Lilienthal  was  the 
first  to  discover  this  exceedingly  important  fact,  which 
is  fully  set  forth  in  his  book,  Bird  Flight  the  Basis  of  the 
Flying  Art^  but  owing  to  some  errors  in  the  methods 
he  used  in  making  measurements,  question  was  raised 
by  other  investigators  not  only  as  to  the  accuracy  of  his 
figures,  but  even  as  to  the  existence  of  any  tangential 
force  at  all.  Our  experiments  confirm  the  existence 
of  this  force,  though  our  measurements  differ  consider- 
ably from  those  of  Lilienthal.  While  at  Kitty  Hawk 
we  spent  much  time  in  measuring  the  horizontal  pressure 
on  our  unloaded  machine  at  various  angles  of  incidence. 
We  found  that  at  13  degrees  the  horizontal  pressure 
was  about  23  Ibs.  This  included  not  only  the  drift 
proper,  or  horizontal  component  of  the  pressure  on  the 
side  of  the  surface,  but  also  the  head  resistance  of  the 
framing  as  well.  The  weight  of  the  machine  at  the 
time  of  this  test  was  about  108  Ibs.  Now,  if  the  pressure 
had  been  normal  to  the  chord  of  the  surface,  the  drift 
proper  would  have  been  to  the  lift  (108  Ibs.)  as  the 
sine  of  13  degrees  is  to  the  cosine  of  13  degrees,  or 
&£P  =  24  -f  Ibs.;  but  this  slightly  exceeds  the  total 
pull  of  23  pounds  on  our  scales.  Therefore  it  is  evident 
that  the  average  pressure  on  the  surface,  instead  of 
being  normal  to  the  chord,  was  so  far  inclined  toward 
the  front  that  all  the  head  resistance  of  framing  and 
wires  used  in  the  construction  was  more  than  overcome. 
In  a  wind  of  fourteen  miles  per  hour  resistance  is  by 
no  means  a  negligible  factor,  so  that  tangential  is 
evidently  a  force  of  considerable  value.  In  a  higher 
wind,  which  sustained  the  machine  at  an  angle  of 

'59 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

i  o  degrees  the  pull  on  the  scales  was  1 8  Ibs.  With  the 
pressure  normal  to  the  chord  the  drift  proper  would 
have  been  ^^.  The  travel  of  the  centre  of  pressure 
made  it  necessary  to  put  sand  on  the  front  rudder  to 
bring  the  centres  of  gravity  and  pressure  into  coincidence, 
consequently  the  weight  of  the  machine  varied  from 
98  Ibs.  to  108  Ibs.  in  the  different  tests)  ==  17  Ibs.,  so 
that,  although  the  higher  wind  velocity  must  have 
caused  an  increase  in  the  head  resistance,  the  tangential 
force  still  came  within  i  Ib.  of  overcoming  it.  After 
our  return  from  Kitty  Hawk  we  began  a  series  of 
experiments  to  accurately  determine  the  amount  and 
direction  of  the  pressure  produced  on  curved  surfaces 
when  acted  upon  by  winds  at  the  various  angles  from 
zero  to  90  degrees.  These  experiments  are  not  yet 
concluded,  but  in  general  they  support  Lilienthal  in  the 
claim  that  the  curves  give  pressures  more  favourable 
in  amount  and  direction  than  planes;  but  we  find 
marked  differences  in  the  exact  values,  especially  at 
angles  below  10  degrees.  We  were  unable  to  obtain 
direct  measurements  of  the  horizontal  pressures  of  the 
machine  with  the  operator  on  board,  but  by  comparing 
the  distance  travelled  with  the  vertical  fall,  it  was  easily 
calculated  that  at  a  speed  of  24  miles  per  hour  the  total 
horizontal  resistances  of  our  machine,  when  bearing 
the  operator,  amounted  to  40  Ibs,  which  is  equivalent  to 
about  2ij  horse-power.  It  must  not  be  supposed, 
however,  that  a  motor  developing  this  power  would  be 
sufficient  to  drive  a  man-bearing  machine.  The  extra 
weight  of  the  motor  would  require  either  a  larger 
machine,  higher  speed,  or  a  greater  angle  of  incidence 
in  order  to  support  it,  and  therefore  more  power.  It  is 
probable,  however,  that  an  engine  of  6  horse-power, 

1 60 


THE  WRIGHT  BROTHERS 

weighing  100  Ibs.  would  answer  the  purpose.  Such 
an  engine  is  entirely  practicable.  Indeed,  working 
motors  of  one-half  this  weight  per  horse-power  (9  Ibs. 
per  horse-power)  have  been  constructed  by  several 
different  builders.  Increasing  the  speed  of  our  machine 
from  24  to  33  miles  per  hour  reduced  the  total  horizontal 
pressure  from  40  to  about  35  Ibs.  This  was  quite  an 
advantage  in  gliding,  as  it  made  it  possible  to  sail  about 
15  per  cent  farther  with  a  given  drop.  However,  it 
would  be  of  little  or  no  advantage  in  reducing  the  size 
of  the  motor  in  a  power-driven  machine,  because  the 
lessened  thrust  would  be  counterbalanced  by  the 
increased  speed  per  minute.  Some  years  ago  Professor 
Langley  called  attention  to  the  great  economy  of  thrust 
which  might  be  obtained  by  using  very  high  speeds, 
and  from  this  many  were  led  to  suppose  that  high  speed 
was  essential  to  success  in  a  motor-driven  machine.  But 
the  economy  to  which  Professor  Langley  called  attention 
was  in  foot  pounds  per  mile  of  travel,  not  in  foot  pounds 
per  minute.  It  is  the  foot  pounds  per  minute  that 
fixes  the  size  of  the  motor.  The  probability  is  that  the 
first  flying  machines  will  have  a  relatively  low  speed, 
perhaps  not  much  exceeding  20  miles  per  hour,  but 
the  problem  of  increasing  the  speed  will  be  much 
simpler  in  some  respects  than  that  of  increasing  the  speed 
of  a  steamboat;  for,  whereas  in  the  latter  case  the  size 
of  the  engine  must  increase  as  the  cube  of  the  speed, 
in  the  flying  machine,  until  extremely  high  speeds  are 
reached,  the  capacity  of  the  motor  increases  in  less 
than  simple  ratio;  and  there  is  even  a  decrease  in  the 
fuel  per  mile  of  travel.  In  other  words,  to  double  the 
speed  of  a  steamship  (and  the  same  is  true  of  the  balloon 
type  of  airship)  eight  times  the  engine  and  boiler  capacity 

161 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

would  be  required,  and  four  times  the  fuel  consumption 
per  mile  of  travel ;  while  a  flying  machine  would  require 
engines  of  less  than  double  the  size,  and  there  would 
be  an  actual  decrease  in  the  fuel  consumption  per  mile 
of  travel.  But  looking  at  the  matter  conversely,  the 
great  disadvantage  of  the  flying  machine  is  apparent; 
for  in  the  latter  no  flight  at  all  is  possible  unless  the 
proportion  of  horse-power  to  flying  capacity  is  very 
high;  but  on  the  other  hand  a  steamship  is  a  mechanical 
success  if  its  ratio  of  horse-power  to  tonnage  is  insig- 
nificant. A  flying  machine  that  would  fly  at  a  speed 
of  50  miles  per  hour  with  engines  of  1,000  horse-power 
would  not  be  upheld  by  its  wings  at  all  at  a  speed  of 
less  than  25  miles  an  hour,  and  nothing  less  than  500 
horse-power  could  drive  it  at  this  speed.  But  a  boat 
which  could  make  40  miles  an  hour  with  engines  of 
1,000  horse-power  would  still  move  4  miles  an  hour 
even  if  the  engines  were  reduced  to  i  horse-power. 
The  problems  of  land  and  water  travel  were  solved 
in  the  nineteenth  century,  because  it  was  possible  to 
begin  with  small  achievements,  and  gradually  work 
up  to  our  present  success.  The  flying  problem  was 
left  over  to  the  twentieth  century,  because  in  this  case 
the  art  must  be  highly  developed  before  any  flight  of 
any  considerable  duration  at  all  can  be  obtained. 

*  However,  there  is  another  way  of  flying  which 
requires  no  artificial  motor,  and  many  workers  believe 
that  success  will  come  first  by  this  road.  I  refer  to  the 
soaring  flight,  by  which  the  machine  is  permanently 
sustained  in  the  air  by  the  same  means  that  are  employed 
by  soaring  birds.  They  spread  their  wings  to  the 
wind,  and  sail  by  the  hour,  with  no  perceptible  exertion 
beyond  that  required  to  balance  and  steer  themselves. 

162 


THE  WRIGHT  BROTHERS 

What  sustains  them  is  not  definitely  known,  though  it 
is  almost  certain  that  it  is  a  rising  current  of  air.  But 
whether  it  be  a  rising  current  or  something  else,  it  is 
as  well  able  to  support  a  flying  machine  as  a  bird,  if  man 
once  learns  the  art  of  utilising  it.  In  gliding  experi- 
ments it  has  long  been  known  that  the  rate  of  vertical 
descent  is  very  much  retarded,  and  the  duration  of  the 
flight  greatly  prolonged,  if  a  strong  wind  blows  up  the 
face  of  the  hill  parallel  to  its  surface.  Our  machine, 
when  gliding  in  still  air,  has  a  rate  of  vertical  descent 
of  nearly  6  feet  per  second,  while  in  a  wind  blowing 
26  miles  per  hour  up  a  steep  hill  we  made  glides  in 
which  the  rate  of  descent  was  less  than  2  feet  per  second. 
And  during  the  larger  part  of  this  time,  while  the 
machine  remained  exactly  in  the  rising  current,  there 
was  no  descent  at  all,  but  even  a  slight  rise.  If  the  operator 
had  had  sufficient  skill  to  keep  himself  from  passing 
beyond  the  rising  current  he  would  have  been  sustained 
indefinitely  at  a  higher  point  than  that  from  which  he 
started.  The  illustration  shows  one  of  these  very 
slow  glides  at  a  time  when  the  machine  was  practically 
at  a  standstill.  The  failure  to  advance  more  rapidly 
caused  the  photographer  some  trouble  in  aiming,  as 
you  will  perceive.  In  looking  at  this  picture  you  will 
readily  understand  that  the  excitement  of  gliding 
experiments  does  not  entirely  cease  with  the  breaking 
up  of  camp.  In  the  photographic  dark-room  at  home 
we  pass  moments  of  as  thrilling  interest  as  any  in  the 
field,  when  the  image  begins  to  appear  on  the  plate 
and  it  is  yet  an  open  question  whether  we  have  a  picture 
of  a  flying  machine  or  merely  a  patch  of  open  sky. 
These  slow  glides  in  rising  current  probably  hold  out 
greater  hope  of  extensive  practice  than  any  other  method 

163 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

within  man's  reach,  but  they  have  the  disadvantage  of 
requiring  rather  strong  winds  or  very  large  supporting 
surfaces.  However,  when  gliding  operators  have 
attained  greater  skill,  they  can  with  comparative  safety 
maintain  themselves  in  the  air  for  hours  at  a  time  in 
this  way,  and  thus  by  constant  practice  so  increase 
their  knowledge  and  skill  that  they  can  rise  into  the 
higher  air  and  search  out  the  currents  which  enable  the 
soaring  birds  to  transport  themselves  to  any  desired 
point  by  first  rising  in  a  circle  and  then  sailing  off  at  a 
descending  angle.  This  illustration  shows  the  machine, 
alone,  flying  in  a  wind  of  35  miles  per  hour  on  the  face 
of  a  steep  hill,  100  feet  high.  It  will  be  seen  that  the 
machine  not  only  pulls  upward,  but  also  pulls  forward 
in  the  direction  from  which  the  wind  blows,  thus  over- 
coming both  gravity  and  the  speed  of  the  wind.  We 
tried  the  same  experiment  with  a  man  on  it,  but  found 
danger  that  the  forward  pull  would  become  so  strong, 
that  the  men  holding  the  ropes  would  be  dragged  from 
their  insecure  foothold  on  the  slope  of  the  hill.  So 
this  form  of  experimenting  was  discontinued  after  four 
or  five  minutes'  trial. 

'  In  looking  over  our  experiments  of  the  past  two 
years,  with  models  and  full-size  machines,  the  following 
points  stand  out  with  clearness : — 

*  i.  That   the   lifting   power   of  a   large   machine, 
held  stationary  in  a  wind  at  a  small  distance  from  the 
earth,  is  much  less  than  the  Lilienthal  table  and  our 
own  laboratory  experiments  would  lead  us  to  expect. 
When     the     machine     is     moved     through    the    air, 
as    in    gliding,     the    discrepancy    seems    much    less 
marked. 

*  2.    That  the  ratio  of  drift  to  lift  in  well-shaped 

164 


THE  WRIGHT  BROTHERS 

surfaces  is  less  at  angles  of  incidence  of  5  degrees  to  1 2 
degrees  than  at  an  angle  of  3  degrees. 

*  3.  That  in  arched  surfaces  the  centre  of  pressure 
at  90  degrees  is   near  the  centre  of  the  surface,   but 
moves  slowly  forward  as  the  angle  becomes   less,  till  a 
critical  angle  varying  with  the  shape  and  depth  of  the 
curv^  is  reached,  after  which  it  moves  rapidly  toward 
the  rear  till  the  angle  of  no  lift  is  found. 

*  4.  That    with    similar    conditions    large    surfaces 
may    be    controlled    with    not    much    greater    difficulty 
than  small  ones,  if  the  control  is  effected  by  manipulation 
of  the  surfaces  themselves,  rather  than  by  a  movement 
of  the  body  of  the  operator. 

*  5.  That  the  head  resistances  of  the  framing  can 
be  brought  to  a  point  much  below  that  usually  estimated 
as  necessary. 

*  6.  That  tails,   both  vertical  and  horizontal,   may 
with  safety  be  eliminated  in  gliding  and  other  flying 
experiments. 

*  7.  That   a   horizontal    position    of  the   operator's 
body  may  be  assumed  without  excessive  danger,   and 
thus    the   head   resistance   reduced   to   about   one-fifth 
that  of  the  upright  position. 

'  8.  That  a  pair  of  superposed,  or  tandem  surfaces, 
has  less  lift  in  proportion  to  drift  than  either  surface 
separately,  even  after  making  allowance  for  weight  and 
head  resistance  of  the  connections.' 

Thus,  to  the  end  of  the  1901  experiments,  Wilbur  v 
Wright  provided  a  fairly  full  account  of  what  was 
accomplished;  the  record  shows  an  amount  of  patient 
and  painstaking  work  almost  beyond  belief — it  was 
no  question  of  making  a  plane  and  launching  it,  but  a 
business  of  trial  and  error,  investigation  and  tabulation 

165 


A  HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

of  detail,  and  the  rejection  time  after  time  of  previously 
accepted  theories,  till  the  brothers  must  have  felt  that 
the  solid  earth  was  no  longer  secure,  at  times.  Though 
it  was  Wilbur  who  set  down  this  and  other  records  of 
the  work  done,  yet  the  actual  work  was  so  much  Orville's 
as  his  brother's  that  no  analysis  could  separate  any  set 
of  experiments  and  say  that  Orville  did  this  and  Wilbur 
did  that — the  two  were  inseparable.  On  this  point 
Griffith  Brewer  remarked  that  *  in  the  arguments,  if 
one  brother  took  one  view,  the  other  brother  took  the 
opposite  view  as  a  matter  of  course,  and  the  subject 
was  thrashed  to  pieces  until  a  mutually  acceptable  result 
remained,  I  have  often  been  asked  since  these  pioneer 
days,  "  Tell  me,  Brewer,  who  was  really  the  originator 
of  those  two  ?  "  In  reply,  I  used  first  to  say,  "  I  think 
it  was  mostly  Wilbur,"  and  later,  when  I  came  to  know 
Orville  better,  I  said,  "  The  thing  could  not  have  been 
done  without  Orville."  Now,  when  asked,  I  find  I 
have  to  say,  "  I  don't  know,"  and  I  feel  the  more  I 
think  of  it  that  it  was  only  the  wonderful  combination 
of  these  two  brothers,  who  devoted  their  lives  together 
for  this  common  object,  that  made  the  discovery  of  the 
art  of  flying  possible.' 

Beyond  the  1901  experiments  in  gliding,  the  record 
grows  more  scrappy,  less  detailed.  It  appears  that  once 
power-driven  flight  had  been  achieved,  the  brothers 
were  not  so  willing  to  talk  as  before;  considering  the 
amount  of  work  that  they  put  in,  there  could  have  been 
little  time  for  verbal  description  of  that  work — as  already 
remarked,  their  tables  still  stand  for  the  designer  and 
experimenter.  The  end  of  the  1901  experiments  left 
both  brothers  somewhat  discouraged,  though  they  had 
accomplished  more  than  any  others.  '  Having  set  out 

166 


THE  WRIGHT  BROTHERS 

with  absolute  faith  in  the  existing  scientific  data,  we 
were  driven  to  doubt  one  thing  after  another,  till  finally, 
after  two  years  of  experiment,  we  cast  it  all  aside,  and 
decided  to  rely  entirely  on  our  own  investigations. 
Truth  and  error  were  everywhere  so  intimately  mixed 
as  to  be  indistinguishable.  .  .  .  We  had  taken  up 
aeronautics  as  a  sport.  We  reluctantly  entered  upon 
the  scientific  side  of  it.' 

Yet,  driven  thus  to  the  more  serious  aspect  of  the 
work,  they  found  in  the  step  its  own  reward,  for  the 
work  of  itself  drew  them  on  and  on,  to  the  construction 
of  measuring  machines  for  the  avoidance  of  error,  and 
to  the  making  of  series  after  series  of  measurements, 
concerning  which  Wilbur  wrote  in  1908  (in  the  Century 
Magazine}  that  *  after  making  preliminary  measurements 
on  a  great  number  of  different  shaped  surfaces,  to  secure 
a  general  understanding  of  the  subject,  we  began 
systematic  measurements  of  standard  surfaces,  so  varied 
in  design  as  to  bring  out  the  underlying  causes  of 
differences  noted  in  their  pressures.  Measurements 
were  tabulated  on  nearly  fifty  of  these  at  all  angles  from 
zero  to  45  degrees,  at  intervals  of  i\  degrees.  Measure- 
ments were  also  secured  showing  the  effects  on  each 
other  when  surfaces  are  superposed,  or  when  they 
follow  one  another. 

'  Some  strange  results  were  obtained.  One  surface, 
with  a  heavy  roll  at  the  front  edge,  showed  the  same 
lift  for  all  angles  from  7^  to  45  degrees.  This  seemed 
so  anomalous  that  we  were  almost  ready  to  doubt  our 
own  measurements,  when  a  simple  test  was  suggested. 
A  weather  vane,  with  two  planes  attached  to  the  pointer 
at  an  angle  of  80  degrees  with  each  other,  was  made. 
According  to  our  table,  such  a  vane  would  be  in  unstable 
H.A.  167  M 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

equilibrium  when  pointing  directly  into  the  wind;  for 
if  by  chance  the  wind  should  happen  to  strike  one  plane 
at  39  degrees  and  the  other  at  41  degrees,  the  plane 
with  the  smaller  angle  would  have  the  greater  pressure, 
and  the  pointer  would  be  turned  still  farther  out  of  the 
course  of  the  wind  until  the  two  vanes  again  secured 
equal  pressures,  which  would  be  at  approximately  30 
and  50  degrees.  But  the  vane  performed  in  this  very 
manner.  Further  corroboration  of  the  tables  was 
obtained  in  experiments  with  the  new  glider  at  Kill 
Devil  Hill  the  next  season. 

4  In  September  and  October,  1902,  nearly  1,000 
gliding  flights  were  made,  several  of  which  covered 
distances  of  over  600  feet.  Some,  made  against  a  wind 
of  36  miles  an  hour,  gave  proof  of  the  effectiveness  of 
the  devices  for  control.  With  this  machine,  in  the 
autumn  of  1 903,  we  made  a  number  of  flights  in  which 
we  remained  in  the  air  for  over  a  minute,  often  soaring 
for  a  considerable  time  in  one  spot,  without  any  descent 
at  all.  Little  wonder  that  our  unscientific  assistant 
should  think  the  only  thing  needed  to  keep  it  indefinitely 
in  the  air  would  be  a  coat  of  feathers  to  make  it  light!  ' 

It  was  at  the  conclusion  of  these  experiments  of 
1903  that  the  brothers  concluded  they  had  obtained 
sufficient  data  from  their  thousands  of  glides  and 
multitude  of  calculations  to  permit  of  their  constructing 
and  making  trial  of  a  power-driven  machine.  The 
first  designs  got  out  provided  for  a  total  weight  of  600 
Ibs.,  which  was  to  include  the  weight  of  the  motor  and 
the  pilot;  but  on  completion  it  was  found  that  there 
was  a  surplus  of  power  from  the  motor,  and  thus  they 
had  150  Ibs.  weight  to  al^w  for  strengthening  wings  and 
other  parts. 

168 


THE  WRIGHT  BROTHERS 

They  came  up  against  the  problem  to  which  Riach 
has  since  devoted  so  much  attention,  that  of  propeller 
design.  '  We  had  thought  of  getting  the  theory  of  the 
screw-propeller  from  the  marine  engineers,  and  then, 
by  applying  our  table  of  air-pressures  to  their  formulae, 
of  designing  air-propellers  suitable  for  our  uses.  But, 
so  far  as  we  could  learn,  the  marine  engineers  possessed 
only  empirical  formulae,  and  the  exact  action  of  the 
screw  propeller,  after  a  century  of  use,  was  still  very 
obscure.  As  we  were  not  in  a  position  to  undertake 
a  long  series  of  practical  experiments  to  discover  a 
propeller  suitable  for  our  machine,  it  seemed  necessary 
to  obtain  such  a  thorough  understanding  of  the  theory 
of  its  reactions  as  would  enable  us  to  design  them  from 
calculation  alone.  What  at  first  seemed  a  simple  problem 
became  more  complex  the  longer  we  studied  it.  With 
the  machine  moving  forward,  the  air  flying  backward, 
the  propellers  turning  sidewise,  and  nothing  standing 
still,  it  seemed  impossible  to  find  a  starting  point  from 
which  to  trace  the  various  simultaneous  reactions. 
Contemplation  of  it  was  confusing.  After  long  arguments 
we  often  found  ourselves  in  the  ludicrous  position  of 
each  having  been  converted  to  the  other's  side,  with  no 
more  agreement  than  when  the  discussion  began. 

*  It  was  not  till  several  months  had  passed,  and 
every  phase  of  the  problem  had  been  thrashed  over 
and  over,  that  the  various  reactions  began  to  untangle 
themselves.  When  once  a  clear  understanding  had  been 
obtained  there  was  no  difficulty  in  designing  a  suitable 
propeller,  with  proper  diameter,  pitch,  and  area  of 
blade,  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  flier.  High 
efficiency  in  a  screw-propeller  is  not  dependent  upon 
any  particular  or  peculiar  shape,  and  there  is  no  such 

169 


A  HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

thing  as  a  "  best  "  screw.  A  propeller  giving  a  high 
dynamic  efficiency  when  used  upon  one  machine  may 
be  almost  worthless  when  used  upon  another.  The 
propeller  should  in  every  case  be  designed  to  meet  the 
particular  conditions  of  the  machine  to  which  it  is  to 
be  applied.  Our  first  propellers,  built  entirely  from 
calculation,  gave  in  useful  work  66  per  cent  of  the 
power  expended.  This  was  about  one-third  more 
than  had  been  secured  by  Maxim  or  Langley.' 

Langley  had  made  his  last  attempt  with  the  '  aero- 
drome/ and  his  splendid  failure  but  a  few  days  before 
the  brothers  made  their  first  attempt  at  power-driven 
aeroplane  flight.  On  December  xyth,  1903,  the  machine 
was  taken  out;  in  addition  to  Wilbur  and  Orville 
Wright,  there  were  present  five  spectators:  Mr  A.  D. 
Etheridge,  of  the  Kill  Devil  life-saving  station;  Mr 
W.  S.  Dough,  Mr  W.  C.  Brinkley,  of  Manteo;  Mr 
John  Ward,  of  Naghead,  and  Mr  John  T.  Daniels.1 
A  general  invitation  had  been  given  to  practically  all 
the  residents  in  the  vicinity,  but  the  Kill  Devil  district 
is  a  cold  area  in  December,  and  history  had  recorded 
so  many  experiments  in  which  machines  had  failed  to 
leave  the  ground  that  between  temperature  and 
scepticism  only  these  five  risked  a  waste  of  their  time. 

And  these  five  were  in  at  the  greatest  conquest  man 
had  made  since  James  Watt  evolved  the  steam  engine 
— perhaps  even  a  greater  conquest  than  that  of  Watt. 
Four  flights  in  all  were  made;  the  first  lasted  only 
twelve  seconds,  '  the  first  in  the  history  of  the  world 
in  which  a  machine  carrying  a  man  had  raised  itself 
into  the  air  by  its  own  power  in  free  flight,  had  sailed 
forward  on  a  level  course  without  reduction  of  speed, 

xThis  list  is  as  given  by  Wilbur  Wright  himself. 
170 


' 


THE  WRIGHT  BROTHERS 

and  had  finally  landed  without  being  wrecked/  said 
Wilbur  Wright  concerning  the  achievement.1  The 
next  two  flights  were  slightly  longer,  and  the  fourth 
and  last  of  the  day  was  one  second  short  of  the  compbte 
minute;  it  was  made  into  the  teeth  of  a  20  mile  an  hour 
wind,  and  the  distance  travelled  was  852  feet. 

This  bald  statement  of  the  day's  doings  is  as  Wilbur 
Wright  himself  has  given  it,  and  there  is  in  truth  nothing 
more  to  say;  no  amount  of  statement  could  add  to  the 
importance  of  the  achievement,  and  no  more  than  the 
bare  record  is  necessary.  The  faith  that  had  inspired 
the  long  roll  of  pioneers,  from  da  Vinci  onward,  was 
justified  at  last. 

Having  made  their  conquest,  the  brothers  took 
the  machine  back  to  camp,  and,  as  they  thought,  placed 
it  in  safety.  Talking  with  the  little  group  of  spectators 
about  the  flights,  they  forgot  about  the  machine,  and 
then  a  sudden  gust  of  wind  struck  it.  Seeing  that  it 
was  being  overturned,  all  made  a  rush  toward  it  to 
save  it,  and  Mr  Daniels,  a  man  of  large  proportions, 
was  in  some  way  lifted  off  his  feet,  falling  between  the 
planes.  The  machine  overturned  fully,  and  Daniels 
was  shaken  like  a  die  in  a  cup  as  the  wind  rolled  the 
machine  over  and  over — he  came  out  at  the  end  of  his 
experience  with  a  series  of  bad  bruises,  and  no  more, 
but  the  damage  done  to  the  machine  by  the  accident 
was  sufficient  to  render  it  useless  for  further  experiment 
that  season. 

A  new  machine,  stronger  and  heavier,  was  con- 
structed by  the  brothers,  and  in  the  spring  of  1904 
they  began  experiments  again  at  Simms  Station,  eight 
miles  to  the  east  of  Dayton,  their  home  town.  Press 

1  Century  Magazine,  September,  1908. 
171 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

representatives  were  invited  for  the  first  trial,  and 
about  a  dozen  came — the  whole  gathering  did  not 
number  more  than  fifty  people.  '  When  preparations 
had  been  concluded,'  Wilbur  Wright  wrote  of  this 
trial,  *  a  wind  of  only  three  or  four  miles  an  hour  was 
blowing — insufficient  for  starting  on  so  short  a  track 
— but  since  many  had  come  a  long  way  to  see  the 
machine  in  action,  an  attempt  was  made.  To  add  to  the 
other  difficulty,  the  engine  refused  to  work  properly. 
The  machine,  after  running  the  length  of  the  track, 
slid  off  the  end  without  rising  into  the  air  at  all.  Several 
of  the  newspaper  men  returned  next  day  but  were 
again  disappointed.  The  engine  performed  badly,  and 
after  a  glide  of  only  sixty  feet  the  machine  again  came 
to  the  ground.  Further  trial  was  postponed  till  the 
motor  could  be  put  in  better  running  condition.  The 
reporters  had  now,  no  doubt,  lost  confidence  in  the 
machine,  though  their  reports,  in  kindness,  concealed 
it.  Later,  when  they  heard  that  we  were  making  flights 
of  several  minutes'  duration,  knowing  that  longer 
flights  had  been  made  with  airships,  and  not  knowing 
any  essential  difference  between  airships  and  flying 
machines,  they  were  but  little  interested. 

*  We  had  not  been  flying  long  in  1904  before  we 
found  that  the  problem  of  equilibrium  had  not  as  yet 
been  entirely  solved.  Sometimes,  in  making  a  circle, 
the  machine  would  turn  over  sidewise  despite  anything 
the  operator  could  do,  although,  under  the  same  con- 
ditions in  ordinary  straight  flight  it  could  have  been 
righted  in  an  instant.  In  one  flight,  in  1905,  while 
circling  round  a  honey  locust-tree  at  a  height  of  about 
50  feet,  the  machine  suddenly  began  to  turn  up  on  one 
wing,  and  took  a  course  toward  the  tree.  The  operator, 

172 


THE  WRIGHT  BROTHERS 

not  relishing  the  idea  of  landing  in  a  thorn  tree,  attempted 
to  reach  the  ground.  The  left  wing,  however,  struck 
the  tree  at  a  height  of  10  or  12  feet  from  the  ground 
and  carried  away  several  branches;  but  the  flight, 
which  had  already  covered  a  distance  of  six  miles,  was 
continued  to  the  starting  point. 

4  The  causes  of  these  troubles — too  technical  for 
explanation  here — were  not  entirely  overcome  till  the 
end  of  September,  1905.  The  flights  then  rapidly 
increased  in  length,  till  experiments  were  discontinued 
after  October  5,  on  account  of  the  number  of  people 
attracted  to  the  field.  Although  made  on  a  ground 
open  on  every  side,  and  bordered  on  two  sides  by  much- 
travelled  thoroughfares,  with  electric  cars  passing  every 
hour,  and  seen  by  all  the  people  living  in  the  neighbour- 
hood for  miles  around,  and  by  several  hundred  others, 
yet  these  flights  have  been  made  by  some  newspapers 
the  subject  of  a  great  "  mystery." 

Viewing  their  work  from  the  financial  side,  the 
two  brothers  incurred  but  little  expense  in  the  earlier 
gliding  experiments,  and,  indeed,  viewed  these  only  as 
recreation,  limiting  their  expenditure  to  that  which 
two  men  might  spend  on  any  hobby.  When  they  had 
once  achieved  successful  power-driven  flight,  they  saw 
the  possibilities  of  their  work,  and  abandoned  such 
other  business  as  had  engaged  their  energies,  sinking 
all  their  capital  in  the  development  of  a  practical  flying 
machine.  Having,  in  1905,  improved  their  designs 
to  such  an  extent  that  they  could  consider  their  machine 
a  practical  aeroplane,  they  devoted  the  years  1906  and 
1907  to  business  negotiations  and  to  the  construction 
of  new  machines,  resuming  flying  experiments  in  May 
of  1908  in  order  to  test  the  ability  of  their  machine  to 


A   HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

meet  the  requirements  of  a  contract  they  had  made 
with  the  United  States  Government,  which  required 
an  aeroplane  capable  of  carrying  two  men,  together 
with  sufficient  fuel  supplies  for  a  flight  of  125  miles  at 
40  miles  per  hour.  Practically  similar  to  the  machine 
used  in  the  experiments  of  1905,  the  contract  aeroplane 
was  fitted  with  a  larger  motor,  and  provision  was  made 
for  seating  a  passenger  and  also  for  allowing  of  the 
operator  assuming  a  sitting  position,  instead  of  lying 
prone. 

Before  leaving  the  work  of  the  brothers  to  consider 
contemporary  events,  it  may  be  noted  that  they  claimed 
— with  justice — that  they  were  first  to  construct  wings 
adjustable  to  different  angles  of  incidence  on  the  right 
and  left  side  in  order  to  control  the  balance  of  an 
aeroplane;  the  first  to  attain  lateral  balance  by  adjusting 
wing-tips  to  respectively  different  angles  of  incidence 
on  the  right  and  left  sides,  and  the  first  to  use  a  vertical 
vane  in  combination  with  wing-tips,  adjustable  to 
respectively  different  angles  of  incidence,  in  balancing 
and  steering  an  aeroplane.  They  were  first,  too,  to 
use  a  movable  vertical  tail,  in  combination  with  wings 
adjustable  to  different  angles  of  incidence,  in  controlling 
the  balance  and  direction  of  an  aeroplane.1 

A  certain  Henry  M.  Weaver,  who  went  to  see  the 
work  of  the  brothers,  writing  in  a  letter  which  was 
subsequently  read  before  the  Aero  Club  de  France, 
records  that  he  had  a  talk  in  1905  with  the  farmer  who 
rented  the  field  in  which  the  Wrights  made  their  flights. 
1  On  October  5th  (1905)  he  was  cutting  corn  in  the 
next  field  east,  which  is  higher  ground.  When  he 
noticed  the  aeroplane  had  started  on  its  flight  he  remarked 

1  Aeronautical  Journal,  No.  79. 

174 


THE   WRIGHT   BROTHERS 

to  his  helper:  '  Well,  the  boys  are  at  it  again,"  and 
kept  on  cutting  corn,  at  the  same  time  keeping  an  eye 
on  the  great  white  form  rushing  about  its  course.  "  I 
just  kept  on  shocking  corn,"  he  continued,  "  until  I  got 
down  to  the  fence,  and  the  durned  thing  was  still  going 
round.  I  thought  it  would  never  stop." 

He  was  right.  The  brothers  started  it,  and  it  will 
never  stop. 

Mr  Weaver  also  notes  briefly  the  construction  of 
the  1905  Wright  flier.  *  The  frame  was  made  of 
larch  wood — from  tip  to  tip  of  the  wings  the  dimension 
was  40  feet.  The  gasoline  motor — a  special  construction 
made  by  them — much  the  same,  though,  as  the  motor 
on  the  Pope-Toledo  automobile — was  of  from  12  to 
15  horse-power.  The  motor  weighed  240  Ibs.  The 
frame  was  covered  with  ordinary  muslin  of  good  quality. 
No  attempt  was  made  to  lighten  the  machine;  they 
simply  built  it  strong  enough  to  stand  the  shocks.  The 
structure  stood  on  skids  or  runners,  like  a  sleigh.  These 
held  the  frame  high  enough  from  the  ground  in  alighting 
to  protect  the  blades  of  the  propeller.  Complete  with 
motor,  the  machine  weighed  925  Ibs.* 


'75 


XII 

THE    FIRST    YEARS    OF    CONQUEST 

IT  is  no  derogation  of  the  work  accomplished  by  the 
Wright  Brothers  to  say  that  they  won  the  honour  of 
the  first  power-propelled  flights  in  a  heavier-than-air 
machine  only  by  a  short  period.  In  Europe,  and 
especially  in  France,  independent  experiment  was  being 
conducted  by  Ferber,  by  Santos-Dumont,  and  others, 
while  in  England  Cody  was  not  far  behind  the  other 
giants  of  those  days.  The  history  of  the  early  years  of 
controlled  power  flights  is  a  tangle  of  half-records; 
there  were  no  chroniclers,  only  workers,  and  much  of 
what  was  done  goes  unrecorded  perforce,  since  it  was 
not  set  down  at  the  time. 

Before  passing  to  survey  of  those  early  years,  let  it 
be  set  down  that  in  1907,  when  the  Wright  Brothers 
had  proved  the  practicability  of  their  machines,  negotia- 
tions were  entered  into  between  the  brothers  and  the 
British  War  Office.  On  April  I2th,  1907,  the  apostle 
of  military  stagnation,  Haldane,  then  War  Minister, 
put  an  end  to  the  negotiations  by  declaring  that  '  the 
War  Office  is  not  disposed  to  enter  into  relations  at 
present  with  any  manufacturer  of  aeroplanes/  The 
state  of  the  British  air  service  in  1914,  at  the  outbreak 
of  hostilities,  is  eloquent  regarding  the  pursuance  of  the 
policy  which  Haldane  initiated. 

'  If  I  talked  a  lot/  said  Wilbur  Wright  once,  '  I 

176 


THE   FIRST  YEARS   OF  CONQUEST 

should  be  like  the  parrot,  which  is  the  bird  that  speaks 
most  and  flies  least/  That  attitude  is  emblematic  of 
the  majority  of  the  early  fliers,  and  because  of  it  the 
record  of  their  achievements  is  incomplete  to-day. 
Ferber,  for  instance,  has  left  little  from  which  to  state 
what  he  did,  and  that  little  is  scattered  through  various 
periodicals,  scrappily  enough.  A  French  army  officer, 
Captain  Ferber  was  experimenting  with  monoplane 
and  biplane  gliders  at  the  beginning  of  the  century — 
his  work  was  contemporary  with  that  of  the  Wrights. 
He  corresponded  both  with  Chanute  and  with  the 
Wrights,  and  in  the  end  he  was  commissioned  by  the 
French  Ministry  of  War  to  undertake  the  journey  to 
America  in  order  to  negotiate  with  the  Wright  Brothers 
concerning  French  rights  in  the  patents  they  had 
acquired,  and  to  study  their  work  at  first  hand. 

Ferber 's  experiments  in  gliding  began  in  1899  at 
the  Military  School  at  Fountainebleau,  with  a  canvas 
glider  of  some  80  square  feet  supporting  surface,  and 
weighing  65  Ibs.  Two  years  later  he  constructed  a 
larger  and  more  satisfactory  machine,  with  which  he 
made  numerous  excellent  glides.  Later,  he  constructed 
an  apparatus  which  suspended  a  plane  from  a  long  arm 
which  swung  on  a  tower,  in  order  that  experiments 
might  be  carried  out  without  risk  to  the  experimenter, 
and  it  was  not  until  1905  that  he  attempted  power- 
driven  free  flight.  He  took  up  the  Voisin  design  of 
biplane  for  his  power-driven  flights,  and  virtually 
devoted  all  his  energies  to  the  study  of  aeronautics. 
His  book,  Aviation,  its  Dawn  and  Development,  is  a 
work  of  scientific  value — unlike  many  of  his  contem- 
poraries, Ferber  brought  to  the  study  of  the  problems 
of  flight  a  trained  mind,  and  he  was  concerned  equally 

177 


A  HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

with  the  theoretical  problems  of  aeronautics  and  the 
practical  aspects  of  the  subject. 

After  Bleriot's  successful  cross-Channel  flight,  it 
was  proposed  to  offer  a  prize  of  £1,000  for  the  feat 
which  C.  S.  Rolls  subsequently  accomplished  (starting 
from  the  English  side  of  the  Channel),  a  flight  from 
Boulogne  to  Dover  and  back ;  in  place  of  this,  however, 
an  aviation  week  at  Boulogne  was  organised,  but, 
although  numerous  aviators  were  invited  to  compete, 
the  condition  of  the  flying  grounds  was  such  that  no 
competitions  took  place.  Ferber  was  virtually  the  only 
one  to  do  any  flying  at  Boulogne,  and  at  the  outset  he 
had  his  first  accident;  after  what  was  for  those  days  a 
good  flight,  he  made  a  series  of  circles  with  his  machine, 
when  it  suddenly  struck  the  ground,  being  partially 
wrecked.  Repairs  were  carried  out,  and  Ferber  resumed 
his  exhibition  flights,  carrying  on  up  to  Wednesday, 
September  22nd,  1909.  On  that  day  he  remained  in 
the  air  for  half  an  hour,  and,  as  he  was  about  to  land, 
the  machine  struck  a  mound  of  earth  and  overturned, 
pinning  Ferber  under  the  weight  of  the  motor.  After 
being  extricated,  Ferber  seemed  to  show  little  concern 
at  the  accident,  but  in  a  few  minutes  he  complained  of 
great  pain,  when  he  was  conveyed  to  the  ambulance 
shed  on  the  ground. 

*  I  was  foolish,'  he  told  those  who  were  with  him 
there.  *  I  was  flying  too  low.  It  was  my  own  fault 
and  it  will  be  a  severe  lesson  to  me.  I  wanted  to  turn 
round,  and  was  only  five  metres  from  the  ground/ 
A  little  after  this,  he  got  up  from  the  couch  on  which 
he  had  been  placed,  and  almost  immediately  collapsed, 
dying  five  minutes  later. 

Ferber's     chief    contemporaries     in     France     were 


THE   FIRST  YEARS   OF   CONQUEST 

Santos-Dumont,  of  airship  fame,  Henri  and  Maurice 
Farman,  Hubert  Latham,  Ernest  Archdeacon,  and 
Delagrange.  These  are  names  that  come  at  once  to 
mind,  as  does  that  of  Bleriot,  who  accomplished  the 
second  great  feat  of  power-driven  flight,  but  as  a  matter 
of  fact  the  years  1903-10  are  rilled  with  a  little  host 
of  investigators  and  experimenters,  many  of  whom, 
although  their  names  do  not  survive  to  any  extent, 
are  but  a  very  little  way  behind  those  mentioned  here 
in  enthusiasm  and  devotion.  Archdeacon  and  Gabriel 
Voisin,  the  former  of  whom  took  to  heart  the  success 
achieved  by  the  Wright  Brothers,  co-operated  in 
experiments  in  gliding.  Archdeacon  constructed  a 
glider  in  box-kite  fashion,  and  Voisin  experimented 
with  it  on  the  Seine,  the  glider  being  towed  by  a  motor- 
boat  to  attain  the  necessary  speed.  It  was  Archdeacon 
who  offered  a  cup  for  the  first  straight  flight  of  200 
metres,  which  was  won  by  Santos-Dumont,  and  he 
also  combined  with  Henri  Deutsch  de  la  Meurthe  in 
giving  the  prize  for  the  first  circular  flight  of  a  mile, 
which  was  won  by  Henry  Farman  on  January  I3th, 
1908. 

A  history  of  the  development  of  aviation  in  France 
in  these,  the  strenuous  years,  would  fill  volumes  in  itself. 
Bleriot  was  carrying  out  experiments  with  a  biplane 
glider  on  the  Seine,  and  Robert  Esnault-Pelterie  was 
working  on  the  lines  of  the  Wright  Brothers,  bringing 
American  practice  to  France.  In  America  others 
besides  the  Wrights  had  wakened  to  the  possibilities 
of  heavier-than-air  flight;  Glenn  Curtiss,  in  company 
with  Dr  Alexander  Graham  Bell,  with  J.  A.  D.  McCurdy, 
and  with  F.  W.  Baldwin,  a  Canadian  engineer,  formed 
the  Aerial  Experiment  Company,  which  built  a  number 

179 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

of  aeroplanes,  most  famous  of  which  were  the  *  June 
Bug/  the  'Red  Wing,'  and  the  'White  Wing/  In 
1908  the  'June  Bug*  won  a  cup  presented  by  the 
Scientific  American — it  was  the  first  prize  offered  in 
America  in  connection  with  aeroplane  flight. 

Among  the  little  group  of  French  experimenters 
in  these  first  years  of  practical  flight,  Santos-Dumont 
takes  high  rank.  He  built  his  '  No.  14  bis  '  aeroplane 
in  biplane  form,  with  two  superposed  main  plane 
surfaces,  and  fitted  it  with  an  eight-cylinder  Antoinette 
motor  driving  a  two-bladed  aluminium  propeller,  of 
which  the  blades  were  6  feet  only  from  tip  to  tip.  The 
total  lift  surface  of  860  square  feet  was  given  with  a 
wing-span  of  a  little  under  40  feet,  and  the  weight  of 
the  complete  machine  was  353  Ibs.,  of  which  the  engine 
weighed  158  Ibs.  In  July  of  1906  Santos-Dumont 
flew  a  distance  of  a  few  yards  in  this  machine,  but 
damaged  it  in  striking  the  ground;  on  October  23rd  of 
the  same  year  he  made  a  flight  of  nearly  200  feet — 
which  might  have  been  longer,  but  that  he  feared  a 
crowd  in  front  of  the  aeroplane  and  cut  off  his  ignition. 
This  may  be  regarded  as  the  first  effective  flight  in 
Europe,  and  by  it  Santos-Dumont  takes  his  place  as 
one  of  the  chief — if  not  the  chief — of  the  pioneers  of 
the  first  years  of  practical  flight,  so  far  as  Europe  is 
concerned. 

Meanwhile,  the  Voisin  Brothers,  who  in  1904 
made  cellular  kites  for  Archdeacon  to  test  by  towing 
on  the  Seine  from  a  motor  launch,  obtained  data  for 
the  construction  of  the  aeroplane  which  Delagrange 
and  Henry  Farman  were  to  use  later.  The  Voisin  was 
a  biplane,  constructed  with  due  regard  to  the  designs 
of  Langley,  Lilienthal,  and  other  earlier  experimenters 

180 


THE  FIRST  YEARS   OF  CONQUEST 

— both  the  Voisins  and  M.  Colliex,  their  engineer, 
studied  Lilienthal  pretty  exhaustively  in  getting  out 
their  design,  though  their  own  researches  were  very 
thorough  as  well.  The  weight  of  this  Voisin  biplane 
was  about  1,450  Ibs.,  and  its  maximum  speed  was  some 
38  to  40  miles  per  hour,  the  total  supporting  surface 
being  about  535  square  feet.  It  differed  from  the 
Wright  design  in  the  possession  of  a  tail-piece,  a 
characteristic  which  marked  all  the  French  school  of 
early  design  as  in  opposition  to  the  American.  The 
Wright  machine  got  its  longitudinal  stability  by  means 
of  the  main  planes  and  the  elevating  planes,  while  the 
Voisin  type  added  a  third  factor  of  stability  in  its  tail- 
planes.  Further,  the  Voisins  fitted  their  biplane  with 
a  wheeled  undercarriage,  while  the  Wright  machine, 
being  fitted  only  with  runners,  demanded  a  launching 
rail  for  starting.  Whether  a  machine  should  be  tailless 
or  tailed  was  for  some  long  time  matter  for  acute 
controversy,  which  in  the  end  was  settled  by  the 
fitting  of  a  tail  to  the  Wright  machines — France  won 
the  dispute  by  the  concession. 

Henry  Farman,  who  began  his  flying  career  with 
a  Voisin  machine,  evolved  from  it  the  aeroplane  which 
bore  his  name,  following  the  main  lines  of  the  Voisin 
type  fairly  closely,  but  making  alterations  in  the  controls, 
and  in  the  design  of  the  undercarriage,  which  was 
somewhat  elaborated,  even  to  the  inclusion  of  shock 
absorbers.  The  seven-cylinder  50  horse-power  Gnome 
rotary  engine  was  fitted  to  the  Farman  machine — the 
Voisins  had  fitted  an  eight-cylinder  Antoinette,  giving 
50  horse-power  at  1,100  revolutions  per  minute,  with 
direct  drive  to  the  propeller.  Farman  reduced  the 
weight  of  the  machine  from  the  1,450  Ibs.  of  the  Voisins 

181 


A  HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

to  some  1,010  Ibs.  or  thereabouts,  and  the  supporting 
area  to  450  square  feet.  This  machine  won  its  chief 
fame  with  Paulhan  as  pilot  in  the  famous  London 
to  Manchester  flight — it  is  to  be  remarked,  too,  that 
Farman  himself  was  the  first  man  in  Europe  to  accom- 
plish a  flight  of  a  mile. 

Other  notable  designs  of  these  early  days  were  the 
*  R.E.P.',  Esnault  Pelterie's  machine,  and  the  Curtiss- 
Herring  biplane.  Of  these  Esnault  Pelterie's  was  a 
monoplane,  designed  in  that  form  since  Esnault  Pelterie 
had  found  by  experiment  that  the  wire  used  in  bracing 
offers  far  more  resistance  to  the  air  than  its  dimensions 
would  seem  to  warrant.  He  built  the  wings  of  sufficient 
strength  to  stand  the  strain  of  flight  without  bracing 
wires,  and  dependent  only  for  their  support  on  the 
points  of  attachment  to  the  body  of  the  machine;  for 
the  rest,  it  carried  its  propeller  in  front  of  the  planes, 
and  both  horizontal  and  vertical  rudders  at  the  stern — 
a  distinct  departure  from  the  Wright  and  similar  types. 
One  wheel  only  was  fixed  under  the  body  where  the 
undercarriage  exists  on  a  normal  design,  but  light 
wheels  were  fixed,  one  at  the  extremity  of  each  wing, 
and  there  was  also  a  wheel  under  the  tail  portion  of  the 
machine.  A  single  lever  actuated  all  the  controls  for 
steering.  With  a  supporting  surface  of  150  square 
feet  the  machine  weighed  946  Ibs.,  about  6.4  Ibs.  per 
square  foot  of  lifting  surface. 

The  Curtiss  biplane,  as  flown  by  Glenn  Curtiss  at 
the  Rheims  meeting,  was  built  with  a  bamboo  frame- 
work, stayed  by  means  of  very  fine  steel-stranded  cables. 
A — then — novel  feature  of  the  machine  was  the  moving 
of  the  ailerons  by  the  pilot  leaning  to  one  side  or  the 
other  in  his  seat,  a  light,  tubular  arm-rest  being  pressed 

182 


THE  FIRST  YEARS   OF  CONQUEST 

by  his  body  when  he  leaned  to  one  side  or  the  other, 
and  thus  operating  the  movement  of  the  ailerons  em- 
ployed for  tilting  the  plane  when  turning.  A  steering- 
wheel  fitted  immediately  in  front  of  the  pilot's  seat 
served  to  operate  a  rear  steering-rudder  when  the  wheel 
was  turned  in  either  direction,  while  pulling  back  the 
wheel  altered  the  inclination  of  the  front  elevating 
planes,  and  so  gave  lifting  or  depressing  control  of  the 
plane. 

This  machine  ran  on  three  wheels  before  leaving 
the  ground,  a  central  undercarriage  wheel  being  fitted 
in  front,  with  two  more  in  line  with  a  right  angle  line 
drawn  through  the  centre  of  the  engine  crank  at  the 
rear  end  of  the  crank-case.  The  engine  was  a  35  horse- 
power Vee  design,  water  cooled,  with  overhead  inlet 
and  exhaust  valves,  and  Bosch  high-tension  magneto 
ignition.  The  total  weight  of  the  plane  in  flying  order 
was  about  700  Ibs. 

As  great  a  figure  in  the  early  days  as  either  Ferber 
or  Santos-Dumont  was  Louis  Bleriot,  who,  as  early  as 
1900,  built  a  flapping-wing  model,  this  before  ever 
he  came  to  experimenting  with  the  Voisin  biplane 
type  of  glider  on  the  Seine.  Up  to  1906  he  had  built 
four  biplanes  of  his  own  design,  and  in  March  of  1907 
he  built  his  first  monoplane,  to  wreck  it  only  a  few  days 
after  completion  in  an  accident  from  which  he  had  a 
fortunate  escape.  His  next  machine  was  a  double 
monoplane,  designed  after  Langley's  precept,  to  a 
certain  extent,  and  this  was  totally  wrecked  in  September 
of  1907.  His  seventh  machine,  a  monoplane,  was 
built  within  a  month  of  this  accident,  and  with  this  he 
had  a  number  of  mishaps,  also  achieving  some  good 
flights,  including  one  in  which  he  made  a  turn.  It  was 
H.A.  183  N 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

wrecked  in  December  of  1907,  whereupon  he  built 
another  monoplane  on  which,  on  July  6th,  1908,  Bleriot 
made  a  flight  lasting  eight  and  a  half  minutes.  In 
October  of  that  year  he  flew  the  machine  from  Toury 
to  Artenay  and  returned  on  it — this  was  just  a  day 
after  Farman's  first  cross-country  flight — but,  trying 
to  repeat  the  success  five  days  later,  Bleriot  collided 
with  a  tree  in  a  fog  and  wrecked  the  machine  past  repair. 
Thereupon  he  set  about  building  his  eleventh  machine, 
with  which  he  was  to  achieve  the  first  flight  across  the 
English  channel. 

Henry  Farman,  to  whom  reference  has  already 
been  made,  was  engaged  with  his  two  brothers,  Maurice 
and  Richard,  in  the  motor-car  business,  and  turned  to 
active  interest  in  flying  in  1907,  when  the  Voisin  firm 
built  his  first  biplane  on  the  box-kite  principle.  In 
July  of  1908  he  won  a  prize  of  ^400  for  a  flight  of 
thirteen  miles,  previously  having  completed  the  first 
kilometre  flown  in  Europe  with  a  passenger,  the  said 
passenger  being  Ernest  Archdeaon.  In  September  of 
1908  Farman  put  up  a  speed  record  of  forty  miles  an 
hour  in  a  flight  lasting  forty  minutes. 

Santos-Dumont  produced  the  famous  '  Demoiselle  ' 
monoplane  early  in  1909,  a  tiny  machine  in  which  the 
pilot  had  his  seat  in  a  sort  of  miniature  cage  under  the 
main  plane.  It  was  a  very  fast,  light  little  machine, 
but  was  difficult  to  fly,  and  owing  to  its  small  wing- 
spread  was  unable  to  glide  at  a  reasonably  safe  angle. 
There  has  probably  never  been  a  cheaper  flying  machine 
to  build  than  the  *  Demoiselle,'  which  could  be  so 
upset  as  to  seem  completely  wrecked,  and  then  repaired 
ready  for  further  flight  by  a  couple  of  hours'  work. 
Santos-Dumont  retained  no  patent  in  the  design,  but 


THE  FIRST  YEARS   OF  CONQUEST 

gave  it  out  freely  to  any  one  who  chose  to  build 
4  Demoiselles  ' ;  the  vogue  of  the  pattern  was  brief, 
owing  to  the  difficulty  of  piloting  the  machine. 

These  were  the  years  of  records,  broken  almost 
as  soon  as  made.  There  was  Farman's  mile,  there  was 
the  flight  of  the  Comte  de  Lambert  over  the  Eiffel 
Tower,  Latham's  flight  at  Blackpool  in  a  high  wind, 
the  Rheims  records,  and  then  Henry  Farman's  flight 
of  four  hours  later  in  1909,  Orville  Wright's  height 
record  of  1,640  feet,  and  Delagrange's  speed  record 
of  49.9  miles  per  hour.  The  coming  to  fame  of  the 
Gnome  rotary  engine  helped  in  the  making  of  these 
records  to  a  very  great  extent,  for  in  this  engine  was  a 
prime  mover  which  gave  the  reliability  that  aeroplane 
builders  and  pilots  had  been  searching  for,  but  vainly. 
The  Wrights  and  Glenn  Curtiss,  of  course,  had  their 
own  designs  of  engine,  but  the  Gnome,  in  spite  of  its 
lack  of  economy  in  fuel  and  oil,  and  its  high  cost, 
soon  came  to  be  regarded  as  the  best  power  plant  for 
flight. 

Delagrange,  one  of  the  very  good  pilots  of  the  early 
days,  provided  a  curious  insight  to  the  way  in  which 
flying  was  regarded,  at  the  opening  of  the  Juvisy  aero- 
drome in  May  of  1909.  A  huge  crowd  had  gathered 
for  the  first  day's  flying,  and  nine  machines  were 
announced  to  appear,  but  only  three  were  brought  out. 
Delagrange  made  what  was  considered  an  indifferent 
little  flight,  and  another  pilot,  one  De  Bischoff,  attempted 
to  rise,  but  could  not  get  his  machine  off  the  ground. 
Thereupon  the  crowd  of  30,000  people  lost  their 
tempers,  broke  down  the  barriers  surrounding  the 
flying  course,  and  hissed  the  officials,  who  were  quite 
unable  to  maintain  order.  Delagrange,  however, 


A  HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

saved  the  situation  by  making  a  circuit  of  the  course 
at  a  height  of  thirty  feet  from  the  ground,  which  won 
him  rounds  of  cheering  and  restored  the  crowd  to 
good  humour.  Possibly  the  smash  achieved  by  Rougier, 
the  famous  racing  motorist,  who  crashed  his  Voisin 
biplane  after  Delagrange  had  made  his  circuit,  completed 
the  enjoyment  of  the  spectators.  Delagrange,  flying 
at  Argentan  in  June  of  1909,  made  a  flight  of  four 
kilometres  at  a  height  of  sixty  feet;  for  those  days  this 
was  a  noteworthy  performance.  Contemporary  with  this 
was  Hubert  Latham's  flight  of  an  hour  and  seven  minutes 
on  an  Antoinette  monoplane;  this  won  the  adjective 
*  magnificent  *  from  contemporary  recorders  of  aviation. 

Viewing  the  work  of  the  little  group  of  French 
experimenters,  it  is,  at  this  length  of  time  from  their 
exploits,  difficult  to  see  why  they  carried  the  art  as  far 
as  they  did.  There  was  in  it  little  of  satisfaction,  a 
certain  measure  of  fame,  and  practically  no  profit — 
the  giants  of  those  days  got  very  little  for  their  pains. 
Delagrange's  experience  at  the  opening  of  the  Juvisy 
ground  was  symptomatic  of  the  way  in  which  flight 
was  regarded  by  the  great  mass  of  people — it  was  a 
sport,  and  nothing  more,  but  a  sport  without  the 
dividends  attaching  to  professional  football  or  horse- 
racing.  For  a  brief  period,  after  the  Rheims  meeting, 
there  was  a  golden  harvest  to  be  reaped  by  the  best  of 
the  pilots.  Henry  Farman  asked  £2,000  for  a  week's 
exhibition  flying  in  England,  and  Paulhan  asked  half 
that  sum,  but  a  rapid  increase  in  the  number  of  capable 
pilots,  together  with  the  fact  that  most  flying  meetings 
were  financial  failures,  owing  to  great  expense  in  organisa- 
tion and  the  doubtful  factor  of  the  weather,  killed  this 
goose  before  many  golden  eggs  had  been  gathered  in 

186 


THE   FIRST  YEARS   OF  CONQUEST 

by  the  star  aviators.  Besides,  as  height  and  distance  records 
were  broken  one  after  another,  it  became  less  and  less 
necessary  to  pay  for  entrance  to  an  aerodrome  in  order  to  see 
a  flight — the  thing  grew  too  big  for  a  mere  sports  ground. 
Long  before  Rheims  and  the  meeting  there,  aviation 
had  grown  too  big  for  the  chronicling  of  every  individual 
effort.  In  that  period  of  the  first  days  of  conquest  of 
the  air,  so  much  was  done  by  so  many  whose  names 
are  now  half-forgotten  that  it  is  possible  only  to  pick 
out  the  great  figures  and  make  brief  reference  to  their 
achievements  and  the  machines  with  which  they  accom- 
plished so  much,  pausing  to  note  such  epoch-making 
events  as  the  London-Manchester  flight,  Bleriot's 
Channel  crossing,  and  the  Rheims  meeting  itself,  and 
then  passing  on  beyond  the  days  of  individual  records 
to  the  time  when  the  machine  began  to  dominate  the 
man.  This  latter  because,  in  the  early  days,  it  was 
heroism  to  trust  life  to  the  planes  that  were  turned  out 
— the  *  Demoiselle  '  and  the  Antoinette  machine  that 
Latham  used  in  his  attempt  to  fly  the  Channel  are  good 
examples  of  the  flimsiness  of  early  types — while  in  the 
later  period,  that  of  the  war  and  subsequently,  the 
heroism  turned  itself  in  a  different — and  nobler — 
direction.  Design  became  standardised,  though  not 
perfected.  The  domination  of  the  machine  may  best 
be  expressed  by  contrasting  the  way  in  which  machines 
came  to  be  regarded  as  compared  with  the  men  who 
flew  them:  up  to  1909,  flying  enthusiasts  talked  of 
Farman,  of  Bleriot,  of  Paulhan,  Curtiss,  and  of  other 
men;  later,  they  began  to  talk  of  the  Voisin,  the 
Deperdussin,  and  even  to  the  Fokker,  the  Avro,  and 
the  Bristol  type.  With  the  standardising  of  the  machine, 
the  days  of  the  giants  came  to  an  end. 

187 


XI11 

FIRST    FLIERS    IN    ENGLAND 

CERTAIN  experiments  made  in  England  by  Mr  Phillips 
seem  to  have  come  near  robbing  the  Wright  Brothers 
of  the  honour  of  the  first  flight;  notes  made  by  Colonel 
J.  D.  Fullerton  on  the  Phillips  flying  machine  show  that 
in  1893  the  first  machine  was  built  with  a  length  of 
25  feet,  breadth  of  22  feet,  and  height  of  1 1  feet,  the 
total  weight,  including  a  72  Ib.  load,  being  420  Ibs. 
The  machine  was  fitted  with  some  fifty  wood  slats,  in 
place  of  the  single  supporting  surface  of  the  monoplane 
or  two  superposed  surfaces  of  the  biplane,  these  slats 
being  fixed  in  a  steel  frame  so  that  the  whole  machine 
rather  resembled  a  Venetian  blind.  A  steam  engine 
giving  about  9  horse-power  provided  the  motive  power 
for  the  six-foot  diameter  propeller  which  drove  the 
machine.  As  it  was  not  possible  to  put  a  passenger  in 
control  as  pilot,  the  machine  was  attached  to  a  central 
post  by  wire  guys  and  run  round  a  circle  100  feet  in 
diameter,  the  track  consisting  of  wooden  planking 
4  feet  wide.  Pressure  of  air  under  the  slats  caused  the 
machine  to  rise  some  two  or  three  feet  above  the  track 
when  sufficient  velocity  had  been  attained,  and  the 
best  trials  were  made  on  June  I9th,  1893,  when  at  a 
speed  of  40  miles  an  hour,  with  a  total  load  of  385  Ibs., 
all  the  wheels  were  off  the  ground  for  a  distance  of 
2,000  feet. 

188 


FIRST  FLIERS  IN  ENGLAND 

In  1904  a  full-sized  machine  was  constructed  by 
Mr  Phillips,  with  a  total  weight,  including  that  of  the 
pilot,  of  600  Ibs.  The  machine  was  designed  to  lift 
when  it  had  attained  a  velocity  of  50  feet  per  second, 
the  motor  fitted  giving  22  horse-power.  On  trial, 
however,  the  longitudinal  equilibrium  was  found  to  be 
defective,  and  a  further  design  was  got  out,  the  third 
machine  being  completed  in  1907.  In  this  the  wood 
slats  were  held  in  four  parallel  container  frames,  the 
weight  of  the  machine,  excluding  the  pilot,  being  500 
Ibs.  A  motor  similar  to  that  used  in  the  1904  machine 
was  fitted,  and  the  machine  was  designed  to  lift  at  a 
velocity  of  about  30  miles  an  hour,  a  seven-foot  propeller 
doing  the  driving.  Mr  Phillips  tried  out  this  machine 
in  a  field  about  400  yards  across.  *  The  machine  was 
started  close  to  the  hedge,  and  rose  from  the  ground 
when  about  200  yards  had  been  covered.  When  the 
machine  touched  the  ground  again,  about  which  there 
could  be  no  doubt,  owing  to  the  terrific  jolting,  it  did 
not  run  many  yards.  When  it  came  to  rest  I  was  about 
ten  yards  from  the  boundary.  Of  course,  I  stopped 
the  engine  before  I  commenced  to  descend/1 

S.  F.  Cody,  an  American  by  birth,  aroused  the 
attention  not  only  of  the  British  public,  but  of  the  War 
Office  and  Admiralty  as  well,  as  early  as  1905  with  his 
man-lifting  kites.  In  that  year  a  height  of  1,600  feet  was 
reached  by  one  of  these  box-kites,  carrying  a  man,  and 
later  in  the  same  year  one  Sapper  Moreton,  of  the 
Balloon  Section  of  the  Royal  Engineers  (the  parent  of 
the  Royal  Flying  Corps)  remained  for  an  hour  at  an 
altitude  of  2,600  feet.  Following  on  the  success  of 
these  kites,  Cody  constructed  an  aeroplane  which  he 

1  Aeronautical  Journal,  July,  1908. 
189 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

designated  a  '  power  kite/  which  was  in  reality  a 
biplane  that  made  the  first  flight  in  Great  Britain. 
Speaking  before  the  Aeronautical  Society  in  1908, 
Cody  said  that  *  I  have  accomplished  one  thing  that  I 
hoped  for  very  much,  that  is,  to  be  the  first  man  to  fly 
in  Great  Britain.  ...  I  made  a  machine  that  left  the 
ground  the  first  time  out;  not  high,  possibly  five  or 
six  inches  only.  I  might  have  gone  higher  if  I  wished. 
I  made  some  five  flights  in  all,  and  the  last  flight  came 
to  grief.  .  .  .  On  the  morning  of  the  accident  I  went 
out  after  adjusting  my  propellers  at  8  feet  pitch  running 
at  600  (revolutions  per  minute).  I  think  that  I  flew 
at  about  twenty-eight  miles  per  hour.  I  had  50  horse- 
power motor  power  in  the  engine.  A  bunch  of  trees, 
a  flat  common  above  these  trees,  and  from  this  flat  there 
is  a  slope  goes  down  ...  to  another  clump  of  trees. 
Now,  these  clumps  of  trees  are  a  quarter  of  a  mile  apart 
or  thereabouts.  ...  I  was  accused  of  doing  nothing 
but  jumping  with  my  machine,  so  I  got  a  bit  agitated 
and  went  to  fly.  I  went  out  this  morning  with  an 
easterly  wind,  and  left  the  ground  at  the  bottom  of  the 
hill  and  struck  the  ground  at  the  top,  a  distance  of  74 
yards.  That  proved  beyond  a  doubt  that  the  machine 
would  fly — it  flew  uphill.  That  was  the  most  talented 
flight  the  machine  did,  in  my  opinion.  Now,  I  turned 
round  at  the  top  and  started  the  machine  and  left  the 
ground — remember,  a  ten  mile  wind  was  blowing  at 
the  time.  Then,  60  yards  from  where  the  men  let  go, 
the  machine  went  off  in  this  direction  (demonstrating) 
— I  make  a  line  now  where  I  hoped  to  land — to  cut 
these  trees  off  at  that  side  and  land  right  off  in  here. 
I  got  here  somewhat  excited,  and  started  down  and 
saw  these  trees  right  in  front  of  me.  I  did  not  want  to 

190 


FIRST  FLIERS   IN  ENGLAND 

smash  my  head  rudder  to  pieces,  so  I  raised  it  again 
and  went  up.  I  got  one  wing  direct  over  that  clump  of 
trees,  the  right  wing  over  the  trees,  the  left  wing  free; 
the  wind,  blowing  with  me,  had  to  lift  over  these  trees. 
So  I  consequently  got  a  false  lift  on  the  right  side  and 
no  lift  on  the  left  side.  Being  only  about  8  feet  from 
the  tree  tops,  that  turned  my  machine  up  like  that 
(demonstrating).  This  end  struck  the  ground  shortly 
after  I  had  passed  the  trees.  I  pulled  the  steering  handle 
over  as  far  as  I  could.  Then  I  faced  another  bunch  of 
trees  right  in  front  of  me.  Trying  to  avoid  this  second 
bunch  of  trees  I  turned  the  rudder,  and  turned  it  rather 
sharp.  That  side  of  the  machine  struck,  and  it  crumpled 
up  like  so  much  tissue  paper,  and  the  machine  spun 
round  and  struck  the  ground  that  way  on,  and  the 
framework  was  considerably  wrecked.  Now,  I  want  to 
advise  all  aviators  not  to  try  to  fly  with  the  wind  and  to 
cross  over  any  big  clump  of  earth  or  any  obstacle  of  any 
description  unless  they  go  square  over  the  top  of  it, 
because  the  lift  is  enormous  crossing  over  anything 
like  that,  and  in  coming  the  other  way  against  the  wind 
it  would  be  the  same  thing  when  you  arrive  at  the 
windward  side  of  the  obstacle.  That  is  a  point  I  did 
not  think  of,  and  had  I  thought  of  it  I  would  have  been 


more  cautious.' 


This  Cody  machine  was  a  biplane  with  about  40 
foot  span,  the  wings  being  about  7  feet  in  depth  with 
about  8  feet  between  upper  and  lower  wing  surfaces. 
'  Attached  to  the  extremities  of  the  lower  planes  are 
two  small  horizontal  planes  or  rudders,  while  a  third 
small  vertical  plane  is  fixed  over  the  centre  of  the  upper 
plane/  The  tail-piece  and  principal  rudder  were  fitted 
behind  the  main  body  of  the  machine,  and  a  horizontal 

191 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

rudder  plane  was  rigged  out  in  front,  on  two  supporting 
arms  extending  from  the  centre  of  the  machine.  The 
small  end-planes  and  the  vertical  plane  were  used  in 
conjunction  with  the  main  rudder  when  turning  to  right 
or  left,  the  inner  plane  being  depressed  on  the  turn, 
and  the  outer  one  correspondingly  raised,  while  the 
vertical  plane,  working  in  conjunction,  assisted  in 
preserving  stability.  Two  two-bladed  propellers  were 
driven  by  an  eight-cylinder  50  horse-power  Antoinette 
motor.  With  this  machine  Cody  made  his  first  flights 
over  Laffan's  plain,  being  then  definitely  attached  to 
the  Balloon  Section  of  the  Royal  Engineers  as  military 
aviation  specialist. 

There  were  many  months  of  experiment  and  trial, 
after  the  accident  which  Cody  detailed  in  the  statement 
given  above,  and  then,  on  May  I4th,  1909,  Cody  took 
the  air  and  made  a  flight  of  1,200  yards  with  entire 
success.  Meanwhile  A.  V.  Roe  was  experimenting  at 
Lea  Marshes  with  a  triplane  of  rather  curious  design, 
the  pilot  having  his  seat  between  two  sets  of  three 
superposed  planes,  of  which  the  front  planes  could  be 
tilted  and  twisted  while  the  machine  was  in  motion. 
He  comes  but  a  little  way  after  Cody  in  the  chronology 
of  early  British  experimenters,  but  Cody,  a  born  inventor, 
must  be  regarded  as  the  pioneer  of  the  present  century 
so  far  as  Britain  is  concerned.  He  was  neither  engineer 
nor  trained  mathematician,  but  he  was  a  good  rule-of- 
thumb  mechanic  and  a  man  of  pluck  and  perseverance; 
he  never  strove  to  fly  on  an  imperfect  machine,  but 
made  alteration  after  alteration  in  order  to  find  out 
what  was  improvement  and  what  was  not,  in  consequence 
of  which  it  was  said  of  him  that  he  was  '  always  satisfied 
with  his  alterations.' 

192 


FIRST  FLIERS  IN  ENGLAND 

By  July  of  1909  he  had  fitted  an  80  horse-power 
motor  to  his  biplane,  and  with  this  he  made  a  flight  of 
over  four  miles  over  Laffan's  Plain  on  July  2ist.  By 
August  he  was  carrying  passengers,  the  first  being 
Colonel  Capper  of  the  R.E.  Balloon  Section,  who  flew 
with  Cody  for  over  two  miles,  and  on  September  8th, 
1909,  he  made  a  world's  record  cross-country  flight 
of  over  forty  miles  in  sixty-six  minutes,  taking  a 
course  from  Laffan's  Plain  over  Farnborough,  Rush- 
moor,  and  Fleet,  and  back  to  Laffan's  Plain.  He  was 
one  of  the  competitors  in  the  1909  Doncaster  Aviation 
Meeting,  and  in  1910  he  competed  at  Wolverhampton, 
Bournemouth,  and  Lanark.  It  was  on  June  7th,  1910, 
that  he  qualified  for  his  brevet,  No.  9,  on  the  Cody  biplane. 

He  built  a  machine  which  embodied  all  the  improve- 
ments for  which  he  had  gained  experience,  in  1911, 
a  biplane  with  a  length  of  35  feet  and  span  of  43  feet, 
known  as  the  '  Cody  cathedral '  on  account  of  its 
rather  cumbrous  appearance.  With  this,  in  1911,  he 
won  the  two  Michelin  trophies  presented  in  England, 
completed  the  Daily  Mail  circuit  of  Britain,  won  the 
Michelin  cross-country  prize  in  1912,  and  altogether, 
by  the  end  of  1912,  had  covered  more  than  7,000  miles 
with  the  machine.  It  was  fitted  with  a  120  horse-power 
Austro-Daimler  engine,  and  was  characterised  by  an 
exceptionally  wide  range  of  speed — the  great  wing- 
spread  gave  a  slow  landing  speed. 

A  few  of  his  records  may  be  given :  in  1 9 1  o,  flying 
at  Laffan's  Plain  in  his  biplane,  fitted  with  a  50-60  horse- 
power Green  engine,  on  December  3ist,  he  broke  the 
records  for  distance  and  time  by  flying  185  miles,  787 
yards,  in  4  hours  37  minutes.  On  October  3ist,  1911, 
he  beat  this  record  by  flying  for  5  hours  15  minutes, 

193 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

in  which  period  he  covered  261  miles  810  yards  with 
a  60  horse-power  Green  engine  fitted  to  his  biplane. 
In  1912,  competing  in  the  British  War  Office  tests  of 
military  aeroplanes,  he  won  the  £5,000  offered  by  the 
War  Office.  This  was  in  competition  with  no  less 
than  twenty-five  other  machines,  among  which  were 
the  since-famous  Deperdussin,  Bristol,  Flanders,  and 
Avro  types,  as  well  as  the  Maurice  Farman  and  Bleriot 
makes  of  machine.  Cody's  remarkable  speed  range 
was  demonstrated  in  these  trials,  the  speeds  of  his 
machine  varying  between  72.4  and  48.5  miles  per 
hour.  The  machine  was  the  only  one  delivered  for  the 
trials  by  air,  and  during  the  three  hours'  test  imposed 
on  all  competitors  a  maximum  height  of  5,000  feet 
was  reached,  the  first  thousand  feet  being  achieved  in 
three  and  a  half  minutes. 

During  the  summer  of  1913,  Cody  put  his  energies 
into  the  production  of  a  large  hydro-biplane,  with  which 
he  intended  to  win  the  £5,000  prize  offered  by  the 
Daily  Mail  to  the  first  aviator  to  fly  round  Britain  on  a 
waterplane.  This  machine  was  fitted  with  landing 
gear  for  its  tests,  and,  while  flying  it  over  Laffan's 
Plain  on  August  7th,  1913,  with  Mr  W.  H.  B.  Evans 
as  passenger,  Cody  met  with  the  accident  that  cost  both 
him  and  his  passenger  their  lives.  Aviation  lost  a  great 
figure  by  his  death,  for  his  plodding,  experimenting, 
and  dogged  courage  not  only  won  him  the  fame  that 
came  to  a  few  of  the  pilots  of  those  days,  but  also 
advanced  the  cause  of  flying  very  considerably  and 
contributed  not  a  little  to  the  sum  of  knowledge  in 
regard  to  design  and  construction. 

Another  figure  of  the  early  days  was  A.  V.  Roe, 
who  came  from  marine  engineering  to  the  motor 

194 


FIRST  FLIERS   IN  ENGLAND 

industry  and  aviation  in  1905.  In  1906  he  went  out 
to  Colorado,  getting  out  drawings  for  the  Davidson 
helicopter,  and  in  1907,  having  returned  to  England, 
he  obtained  highest  award  out  of  200  entries  in  a  model 
aeroplane  flying  competition.  From  the  design  of 
this  model  he  built  a  full-sized  machine,  and  made  a 
first  flight  on  it,  fitted  with  a  24  horse-power  Antoinette 
engine,  in  June  of  1908.  Later,  he  fitted  a  9  horse- 
power motor-cycle  engine  to  a  triplane  of  his  own 
design,  and  with  this  made  a  number  of  short  flights; 
he  got  his  flying  brevet  on  a  triplane  with  a  motor  of 
35  horse-power,  which,  together  with  a  second  triplane, 
was  entered  for  the  Blackpool  aviation  meeting  of  1910, 
but  was  burnt  in  transport  to  the  meeting.  He  was 
responsible  for  the  building  of  the  first  seaplane  to  rise 
from  English  waters,  and  may  be  counted  the  pioneer 
of  the  tractor  type  of  biplane.  In  1913  he  built  a  two- 
seater  tractor  biplane  with  80  horse-power  engine, 
a  machine  which  for  some  considerable  time  ranked 
as  a  leader  of  design.  Together  with  E.  V.  Roe  and 
H.  V.  Roe,  '  A.  V.'  controlled  the  Avro  works,  which 
produced  some  of  the  most  famous  training  machines 
of  the  war  period  in  a  modification  of  the  original  80 
horse-power  tractor.  The  first  of  the  series  of  Avro 
tractors  to  be  adopted  by  the  military  authorities  was 
the  1912  biplane,  a  two-seater  fitted  with  50  horse- 
power engine.  It  was  the  first  tractor  biplane  with  a 
closed  fuselage  to  be  used  for  military  work,  and  became 
standard  for  the  type.  The  Avro  seaplane,  of  100 
horse-power  (a  fourteen-cylinder  Gnome  engine  was 
used)  was  taken  up  by  the  British  Admiralty  in  1913. 
It  had  a  length  of  34  feet  and  a  wing-span  of  50  feet, 
and  was  of  the  twin-float  type. 

'95 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

Geoffrey  de  Havilland,  though  of  later  rank,  counts 
high  among  designers  of  British  machines.  He  qualified 
for  his  brevet  as  late  as  February,  1911,  on  a  biplane 
of  his  own  construction,  and  became  responsible  for  the 
design  of  the  BE2,  the  first  successful  British  Govern- 
ment biplane.  On  this  he  made  a  British  height  record 
of  10,500  feet  over  Salisbury  Plain,  in  August  of  1912, 
when  he  took  up  Major  Sykes  as  passenger.  In  the 
war  period  he  was  one  of  the  principal  designers  of 
fighting  and  reconnaissance  machines. 

F.  Handley  Page,  who  started  in  business  as  an 
aeroplane  builder  in  1908,  having  works  at  Barking, 
was  one  of  the  principal  exponents  of  the  inherently 
stable  machine,  to  which  he  devoted  practically  all  his 
experimental  work  up  to  the  outbreak  of  war.  The 
experiments  were  made  with  various  machines,  both 
of  monoplane  and  biplane  type,  and  of  these  one  of  the 
best  was  a  two-seater  monoplane  built  in  1911,  while 
a  second  was  a  larger  machine,  a  biplane,  built  in  1913 
and  fitted  with  a  no  horse-power  Anzani  engine. 
The  war  period  brought  out  the  giant  biplane  with 
which  the  name  of  Handley  Page  is  most  associated, 
the  twin-engined  night-bomber  being  a  familiar  feature 
of  the  later  days  of  the  war;  the  four-engined  bomber 
had  hardly  had  a  chance  of  proving  itself  under  service 
conditions  when  the  war  came  to  an  end. 

Another  notable  figure  of  the  early  period  was 
'  Tommy '  Sopwith,  who  took  his  flying  brevet  at 
Brooklands  in  November  of  1910,  and  within  four  days 
made  the  British  duration  record  of  108  miles  in  3  hours 
12  m  nutes.  On  December  i8th,  1910,  he  won  the 
Baron  de  Forrest  prize  of  £4,000  for  the  longest  flight 
from  England  to  the  Continent,  flying  from  Eastchurch 

196 


FIRST  FLIERS   IN  ENGLAND 

to  Tirlemont,  Belgium,  in  three  hours,  a  distance  of 
1 6 1  miles.  After  two  years  of  touring  in  America,  he 
returned  to  England  and  established  a  flying  school. 
In  1912  he  won  the  first  aerial  Derby,  and  in  1913  a 
machine  of  his  design,  a  tractor  biplane,  raised  the 
British  height  record  to  13,000  feet  (June  i6th,  at 
Brooklands).  First  as  aviator,  and  then  as  designer, 
Sopwith  has  done  much  useful  work  in  aviation. 

These  are  but  a  few,  out  of  a  host  who  contributed 
to  the  development  of  flying  in  this  country,  for, 
although  France  may  be  said  to  have  set  the  pace  as 
regards  development,  Britain  was  not  far  behind. 
French  experimenters  received  far  more  Government 
aid  than  did  the  early  British  aviators  and  designers — 
in  the  early  days  the  two  were  practically  synonymous, 
and  there  are  many  stories  of  the  very  early  days  at 
Brooklands,  where,  when  funds  ran  low,  the  ardent 
spirits  patched  their  trousers  with  aeroplane  fabric  and 
went  on  with  their  work  with  Bohemian  cheeriness. 
Cody,  altering  and  experimenting  on  Laffan's  Plain, 
is  the  greatest  figure  of  them  all,  but  others  rank,  too, 
as  giants  of  the  early  days,  before  the  war  brought  full 
recognition  of  the  aeroplane's  potentialities. 

One  of  the  first  men  actually  to  fly  in  England, 
Mr  J.  C.  T.  Moore-Brabazon,  was  a  famous  figure  in 
the  days  of  exhibition  flying,  and  won  his  reputation 
mainly  through  being  first  to  fly  a  circular  mile  on  a 
machine  designed  and  built  in  Great  Britain  and  piloted 
by  a  British  subject.  Moore-Brabazon 's  earliest  flights 
were  made  in  France  on  a  Voisin  biplane  in  1908,  and 
he  brought  this  machine  over  to  England,  to  the  Aero 
Club  grounds  at  Shellness,  but  soon  decided  that  he 
would  pilot  a  British  machine  instead.  An  order  was 

197 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

placed  for  a  Short  machine,  and  this,  fitted  with  a  50-60 
horse-power  Green  engine,  was  used  for  the  circular 
mile,  which  won  a  prize  of  £1,000  offered  by  the  Daily 
Mail,  the  feat  being  accomplished  on  October  3oth, 
1909.  Five  days  later,  Moore  Brabazon  achieved  the 
longest  flight  up  to  that  time  accomplished  on  a  British- 
built  machine,  covering  three  and  a  half  miles.  In 
connection  with  early  flying  in  England,  it  is  claimed 
that  A.  V.  Roe,  flying  *  Avro  B,'  on  June  8th,  1908, 
was  actually  the  first  man  to  leave  the  ground,  this 
being  at  Brooklands,  but  in  point  of  fact  Cody  antedated 
him. 

No  record  of  early  British  fliers  could  be  made 
without  the  name  of  C.  S.  Rolls,  a  son  of  Lord  Llangattock, 
On  June  2nd,  1910,  he  flew  across  the  English  Channel 
to  France,  until  he  was  duly  observed  over  French 
territory,  when  he  returned  to  England  without  alighting. 
The  trip  was  made  on  a  Wright  biplane,  and  was  the 
third  Channel  crossing  by  air,  Bleriot  having  made  the 
first,  and  Jacques  de  Lesseps  the  second.  Rolls  was 
first  to  make  the  return  journey  in  one  trip.  He  was 
eventually  killed  through  the  breaking  of  the  tail-plane 
of  his  machine  in  descending  at  a  flying  meeting  at 
Bournemouth.  The  machine  was  a  Wright  biplane, 
but  the  design  of  the  tail-plane — which,  by  the  way, 
was  an  addition  to  the  machine,  and  was  not  even 
sanctioned  by  the  Wrights — appears  to  have  been 
carelessly  executed,  and  the  plane  itself  was  faulty  in 
construction.  The  breakage  caused  the  machine  to 
overturn,  killing  Rolls,  who  was  piloting  it. 


198 


XIV 


THE  foregoing  brief — and  necessarily  incomplete — 
survey  of  the  early  British  group  of  fliers  has  taken  us 
far  beyond  some  of  the  great  events  of  the  early  days 
of  successful  flight,  and  it  is  necessary  to  go  back  to 
certain  landmarks  in  the  history  of  aviation,  first  of 
which  is  the  great  meeting  at  Rheims  in  1909.  Wilbur 
Wright  had  come  to  Europe,  and,  flying  at  Le  Mans 
and  Pau — it  was  on  August  8th,  1908,  that  Wilbur 
Wright  made  the  first  of  his  ascents  in  Europe — had 
stimulated  public  interest  in  flying  in  France  to  a  very 
great  degree.  Meanwhile,  Orville  Wright,  flying  at 
Fort  Meyer,  U.S.A.,  with  Lieutenant  Selfridge  as  a 
passenger,  sustained  an  accident  which  very  nearly 
cost  him  his  life  through  the  transmission  gear  of  the 
motor  breaking.  Selfridge  was  killed  and  Orville  Wright 
was  severely  injured — it  was  the  first  fatal  accident 
with  a  Wright  machine. 

Orville  Wright  made  a  flight  of  over  an  hour  on 
September  9th,  1908,  and  on  December  3ist  of  that 
year  Wilbur  flew  for  2  hours  19  minutes.  Thus,  when 
the  Rheims  meeting  was  organised — more  notable 
because  it  was  the  first  of  its  kind,  there  were  already 
records  waiting  to  be  broken.  The  great  week  opened 
on  August  22nd,  there  being  thirty  entrants,  including 
all  the  most  famous  men  among  the  early  fliers  in  France. 
H.A.  199  o 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

Bleriot,  fresh  from  his  Channel  conquest,  was  there, 
together  with  Henry  Farman,  Paulhan,  Curtiss,  Latham, 
and  the  Comte  de  Lambert,  first  pupil  of  the  Wright 
machine  in  Europe  to  achieve  a  reputation  as  an  aviator. 

*  To  say  that  this  week  marks  an  epoch  in  the  history 
of  the  world  is  to  state  a  platitude.  Nevertheless,  it  is 
worth  stating,  and  for  us  who  are  lucky  enough  to  be 
at  Rheims  during  this  week  there  is  a  solid  satisfaction 
in  the  idea  that  we  are  present  at  the  making  of  history. 
In  perhaps  only  a  few  years  to  come  the  competitions 
of  this  week  may  look  pathetically  small  and  the  distances 
and  speeds  may  appear  paltry.  Nevertheless,  they  are 
the  first  of  their  kind,  and  that  is  sufficient.' 

So  wrote  a  newspaper  correspondent  who  was 
present  at  the  famous  meeting,  and  his  words  may 
stand,  being  more  than  mere  journalism;  for  the  great 
flying  week  which  opened  on  August  22nd,  1909, 
ranks  as  one  of  the  great  landmarks  in  the  history  of 
heavier-than-air  flight.  The  day  before  the  opening 
of  the  meeting  a  downpour  of  rain  spoilt  the  flying 
ground;  Sunday  opened  with  a  fairly  high  wind,  and 
in  a  lull  M.  Guffroy  turned  out  on  a  crimson  R.E.P. 
monoplane,  but  the  wheels  of  his  undercarriage  stuck 
in  the  mud  and  prevented  him  from  rising  in  the  quarter 
of  an  hour  allowed  to  competitors  to  get  off  the  ground. 
Bleriot,  following,  succeeded  in  covering  one  side  of 
the  triangular  course,  but  then  came  down  through 
grit  in  the  carburettor.  Latham,  following  him  with 
thirteen  as  the  number  of  his  machine,  experienced  his 
usual  bad  luck  and  came  to  earth  through  engine  trouble 
after  a  very  short  flight.  Captain  Ferber,  who,  owing 
to  military  regulations,  always  flew  under  the  name  of 
De  Rue,  came  out  next  with  his  Voisin  biplane,  but 

200 


RHEIMS,  AND  AFTER 

failed  to  get  off  the  ground ;  he  was  followed  by  Lefebvre 
on  a  Wright  biplane,  who  achieved  the  success  of  the 
morning  by  rounding  the  course — a  distance  of  six  and 
a  quarter  miles — in  nine  minutes  with  a  twenty  mile  an 
hour  wind  blowing.  His  flight  finished  the  morning. 

Wind  and  rain  kept  competitors  out  of  the  air 
until  the  evening,  when  Latham  went  up,  to  be  followed 
almost  immediately  by  the  Comte  de  Lambert.  Sommer, 
Cockburn  (the  only  English  competitor),  Delagrange, 
Fournier,  Lefebvre,  Bleriot,  Bunau-Varilla,  Tissandier, 
Paulhan,  and  Ferber  turned  out  after  the  first  two,  and 
the  excitement  of  the  spectators  at  seeing  so  many 
machines  in  the  air  at  one  time  provoked  wild  cheering. 
The  only  accident  of  the  day  came  when  Bleriot  damaged 
his  propeller  in  colliding  with  a  haycock. 

The  main  results  of  the  day  were  that  the  Comte 
de  Lambert  flew  30  kilometres  in  29  minutes  2  seconds; 
Lefebvre  made  the  ten-kilometre  circle  of  the  track  in 
just  a  second  under  9  minutes,  while  Tissandier  did  it 
in  9^  minutes,  and  Paulhan  reached  a  height  of  230 
feet.  Small  as  these  results  seem  to  us  now,  and  ridiculous 
as  may  seem  enthusiasm  at  the  sight  of  a  few  machines 
in  the  air  at  the  same  time,  the  Rheims  Meeting  remains 
a  great  event,  since  it  proved  definitely  to  the  whole 
world  that  the  conquest  of  the  air  had  been  achieved. 

Throughout  the  week  record  after  record  was 
made  and  broken.  Thus  on  the  Monday,  Lefebvre 
put  up  a  record  for  rounding  the  course  and  Bleriot 
beat  it,  to  be  beaten  in  turn  by  Glenn  Curtiss  on  his 
Curtiss-Herring  biplane.  On  that  day,  too,  Paulhan 
covered  34^  miles  in  i  hour  6  minutes.  On  the  next 
day,  Paulhan  on  his  Voisin  biplane  took  the  air  with 
Latham,  and  Fournier  followed,  only  to  smash  up  his 

201 


A  HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

machine  by  striking  an  eddy  of  wind  which  turned 
him  over  several  times.  On  the  Thursday,  one  of  the 
chief  events  was  Latham's  43  miles  accomplished  in  i  hour 
2  minutes  in  the  morning  and  his  96.5  miles  in  2  hours 
13  minutes  in  the  afternoon,  the  latter  flight  only 
terminated  by  running  out  of  petrol.  On  the  Friday, 
the  Colonel  Renard  French  airship,  which  had  flown 
over  the  ground  under  the  pilotage  of  M.  Kapfarer, 
paid  Rheims  a  second  visit;  Latham  manoeuvred 
round  the  airship  on  his  Antoinette  and  finally  left  it 
far  behind.  Henry  Farman  won  the  Grand  Prix  de 
Champagne  on  this  day,  covering  112  miles  in  3  hours, 
4  minutes,  56  seconds,  Latham  being  second  with 
his  96.5  miles  flight,  and  Paulhan  third. 

On  the  Saturday,  Glenn  Curtiss  came  to  his  own, 
winning  the  Gordon-Bennett  Cup  by  covering  20 
kilometres  in  15  minutes  50.6  seconds.  Bleriot  made 
a  good  second  with  15  minutes  56.2  seconds  as  his  time, 
and  Latham  and  Lefebvre  were  third  and  fourth. 
Farman  carried  off  the  passenger  prize  by  carrying  two 
passengers  a  distance  of  6  miles  in  10  minutes  39 
seconds.  On  the  last  day  Delagrange  narrowly  escaped 
serious  accident  through  the  bursting  of  his  propeller 
while  in  the  air,  Curtiss  made  a  new  speed  record  by 
travelling  at  the  rate  of  over  50  miles  an  hour,  and 
Latham,  rising  to  500  feet,  won  the  altitude  prize. 

These  are  the  cold  statistics  of  the  meeting;  at  this 
length  of  time  it  is  difficult  to  convey  any  idea  of  the 
enthusiasm  of  the  crowds  over  the  achievements  of  the 
various  competitors,  while  the  incidents  of  the  week, 
comic  and  otherwise,  are  nearly  forgotten  now  even  by 
those  present  in  this  making  of  history.  Latham's 
great  flight  on  the  Thursday  was  rendered  a  breathless 

202 


RHEIMS,   AND  AFTER 

episode  by  a  downpour  of  rain  when  he  had  covered 
all  but  a  kilometre  of  the  record  distance  previously 
achieved  by  Paulhan,  and  there  was  wild  enthusiasm 
when  Latham  flew  on  through  the  rain  until  he  had 
put  up  a  new  record  and  his  petrol  had  run  out.  Again, 
on  the  Friday  afternoon,  the  Colonel  Renard  took  the 
air  together  with  a  little  French  dirigible,  Zodiac  III; 
Latham  was  already  in  the  air  directly  over  Farman, 
who  was  also  flying,  and  three  crows  which  turned  out  as 
rivals  to  the  human  aviators  received  as  much  cheering 
for  their  appearance  as  had  been  accorded  to  the  machines, 
which  doubtless  they  could  not  understand.  Frightened 
by  the  cheering,  the  crows  tried  to  escape  from  the 
course,  but  as  they  came  near  the  stands,  the  crowd 
rose  to  cheer  again  and  the  crows  wheeled  away  to 
make  a  second  charge  towards  safety,  with  the  same 
result;  the  crowd  rose  and  cheered  at  them  a  third  and 
fourth  time;  between  ten  and  fifteen  thousand  people 
stood  on  chairs  and  tables  and  waved  hats  and  handker- 
chiefs at  three  ordinary,  everyday  crows.  One  thoughtful 
spectator,  having  thoroughly  enjoyed  the  funny  side 
of  the  incident,  remarked  that  the  ultimate  mastery  of 
the  air  lies  with  the  machine  that  comes  nearest  to  natural 
flight.  This  still  remains  for  the  future  to  settle. 

Farman 's  world  record,  which  won  the  Grand  Prix 
de  Champagne,  was  done  with  a  Gnome  Rotary  Motor 
which  had  only  been  run  on  the  test  bench  and  was 
fitted  to  his  machine  four  hours  before  he  started  on 
the  great  flight.  His  propeller  had  never  been  tested, 
having  only  been  completed  the  night  before.  The 
closing  laps  of  that  flight,  extending  as  they  did  into 
the  growing  of  the  dusk,  made  a  breathlessly  eerie 
experience  for  such  of  the  spectators  as  stayed  on  to 

203 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

watch — and  these  were  many.  Night  came  on  steadily 
and  Farman  covered  lap  after  lap  just  as  steadily,  a 
buzzing,  circling  mechanism  with  something  relentless 
in  its  isolated  persistency. 

The  final  day  of  the  meeting  provided  a  further 
record  in  the  quarter  million  spectators  who  turned  up 
to  witness  the  close  of  the  great  week.  Bleriot,  turning 
out  in  the  morning,  made  a  landing  in  some  such  fashion 
as  flooded  the  carburettor  and  caused  it  to  catch  fire. 
Bleriot  himself  was  badly  burned,  since  the  petrol  tank 
burst  and,  in  the  end,  only  the  metal  parts  of  the  machine 
were  left.  Glenn  Curtis  tried  to  beat  Bleriot's  time 
for  a  lap  of  the  course,  but  failed.  In  the  evening, 
Farman  and  Latham  went  out  and  up  in  great  circles, 
Farman  cleaving  his  way  upward  in  what  at  the  time 
counted  for  a  huge  machine,  on  circles  of  about  a  mile 
diameter.  His  first  round  took  him  level  with  the  top 
of  the  stands,  and,  in  his  second,  he  circled  the  captive 
balloon  anchored  in  the  middle  of  the  grounds.  After 
another  circle,  he  came  down  on  a  long  glide,  when 
Latham's  lean  Antoinette  monoplane  went  up  in  circles 
more  graceful  than  those  of  Farman.  '  Swiftly  it  rose 
and  swept  round  close  to  the  balloon,  veered  round  to 
the  hangars,  and  out  over  to  the  Rheims  road.  Back 
it  came  high  over  the  stands,  the  people  craning  their 
necks  as  the  shrill  cry  of  the  engine  drew  nearer  and 
nearer  behind  the  stands.  Then  of  a  sudden,  the  little 
form  appeared  away  up  in  the  deep  twilight  blue  vault 
of  the  sky,  heading  straight  as  an  arrow  for  the  anchored 
balloon.  Over  it,  and  high,  high  above  it  went  the 
Antoinette,  seemingly  higher  by  many  feet  than  the 
Farman  machine.  Then,  wheeling  in  a  long  sweep  to 
the  left,  Latham  steered  his  machine  round  past  the 

204 


RHEIMS,  AND  AFTER 

stands,  where  the  people,  their  nerve-tension  released 
on  seeing  the  machine  descending  from  its  perilous 
height  of  500  feet,  shouted  their  frenzied  acclamations 
to  the  hero  of  the  meeting. 

'  For  certainly  "  Le  Tham,"  as  the  French  call  him, 
was  the  popular  hero.  He  always  flew  high,  he  always 
flew  well,  and  his  machine  was  a  joy  to  the  eye,  either 
afar  off  or  at  close  quarters.  The  public  feeling  for 
Bleriot  is  different.  Bleriot,  in  the  popular  estimation, 
is  the  man  who  rights  against  odds,  who  meets  the 
adverse  fates  calmly  and  with  good  courage,  and  to 
whom  good  luck  comes  once  in  a  while  as  a  reward  for 
much  labour  and  anguish,  bodily  and  mental.  Latham 
is  the  darling  of  the  Gods,  to  whom  Fate  has  only  been 
unkind  in  the  matter  of  the  Channel  flight,  and  only 
then  because  the  honour  belonged  to  Bleriot. 

*  Next  to  these  two,  the  public  loved  most  Lefebvre, 
the  joyous,  the  gymnastic.  Lefebvre  was  the  comedian 
of  the  meeting.  When  things  began  to  flag,  the  gay 
little  Lefebvre  would  trot  out  to  his  starting  rail,  out 
at  the  back  of  the  judge's  enclosure  opposite  the  stands, 
and  after  a  little  twisting  of  propellers  his  Wright 
machine  would  bounce  off  the  end  of  its  starting  rail 
and  proceed  to  do  the  most  marvellous  tricks  for  the 
benefit  of  the  crowd,  wheeling  to  right  and  left,  darting 
up  and  down,  now  flying  over  a  troop  of  the  cavalry 
who  kept  the  plain  clear  of  people  and  sending  their 
horses  into  hysterics,  anon  making  straight  for  an 
unfortunate  photographer  who  would  throw  himself 
and  his  precious  camera  flat  on  the  ground  to  escape 
annihilation  as  Lefebvre  swept  over  him  6  or  7  feet  off 
the  ground.  Lefebvre  was  great  fun,  and  when  he  had 
once  found  that  his  machine  was  not  fast  enough  to 

205 


A   HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

compete  for  speed  with  the  Bleriots,  Antoinettes,  and 
Curtiss,  he  kept  to  his  metier  of  amusing  people.  The 
promoters  of  the  meeting  owe  Lefebvre  a  debt  of 
gratitude,  for  he  provided  just  the  necessary  comic 
relief.' — (The  Aero,  September  yth,  1909.) 

It  may  be  noted,  in  connection  with  the  fact  that 
Cockburn  was  the  only  English  competitor  at  the 
meeting,  that  the  Rheims  Meeting  did  more  than  anything 
which  had  preceded  it  to  waken  British  interest  in 
aviation.  Previously,  heavier-than-air  flight  in  England 
had  been  regarded  as  a  freak  business  by  the  great 
majority,  and  the  very  few  pioneers  who  persevered 
toward  winning  England  a  share  in  the  conquest  of 
the  air  came  in  for  as  much  derision  as  acclamation. 
Rheims  altered  this;  it  taught  the  world  in  general,  and 
England  in  particular,  that  a  serious  rival  to  the  dirigible 
balloon  had  come  to  being,  and  it  awakened  the  thinking 
portion  of  the  British  public  to  the  fact  that  the  aeroplane 
had  a  future. 

The  success  of  this  great  meeting  brought  about  a 
host  of  imitations  of  which  only  a  few  deserve  bare 
mention  since,  unlike  the  first,  they  taught  nothing  and 
achieved  little.  There  was  the  meeting  at  Boulogne 
late  in  September  of  1909,  of  which  the  only  noteworthy 
event  was  Ferber's  death.  There  was  a  meeting  at 
Brescia  where  Curtiss  again  took  first  prize  for  speed 
and  Rougier  put  up  a  world's  height  record  of  645  feet. 
The  Blackpool  meeting  followed  between  1 8th  and 
23rd  of  October,  1909,  forming,  with  the  exception  of 
Doncaster,  the  first  British  Flying  Meeting.  Chief 
among  the  competitors  were  Henry  Farman,  who  took 
the  distance  prize,  Rougier,  Paulhan,  and  Latham,  who, 
by  a  flight  in  a  high  wind,  convinced  the  British  public 

206 


RHEIMS,   AND  AFTER 

that  the  theory  that  flying  was  only  possible  in  a  calm 
was  a  fallacy.  A  meeting  at  Doncaster  was  practically 
simultaneous  with  the  Blackpool  week;  Delagrange, 
Le  Blon,  Sommer,  and  Cody  were  the  principal  figures 
in  this  event.  It  should  be  added  that  130  miles  was 
recorded  as  the  total  flown  at  Doncaster,  while  at 
Blackpool  only  1 1 5  miles  were  flown.  Then  there  were 
Juvisy,  the  first  Parisian  meeting,  Wolverhampton, 
and  the  Comte  de  Lambert's  flight  round  the  Eiffel 
Tower  at  a  height  estimated  at  between  1,200  and  1,300 
feet.  This  may  be  included  in  the  record  of  these  aerial 
theatricals,  since  it  was  nothing  more. 

Probably  wakened  to  realisation  of  the  possibilities 
of  the  aeroplane  by  the  Rheims  Meeting,  Germany 
turned  out  its  first  plane  late  in  1909.  It  was  known  as 
the  Grade  monoplane,  and  was  a  blend  of  the  Bleriot 
and  Santos-Dumont  machines,  with  a  tail  suggestive 
of  the  Antoinette  type.  The  main  frame  took  the  form 
of  a  single  steel  tube,  at  the  forward  end  of  which  was 
rigged  a  triangular  arrangement  carrying  the  pilot's 
seat  and  the  landing  wheels  underneath,  with  the  wing 
warping  wires  and  stays  above.  The  sweep  of  the 
wings  was  rather  similar  to  the  later  Taube  design, 
though  the  sweep  back  was  not  so  pronounced,  and  the 
machine  was  driven  by  a  four-cylinder,  20  horse-power, 
air-cooled  engine  which  drove  a  two-bladed  tractor 
propeller.  In  spite  of  Lilienthal's  pioneer  work  years 
before,  this  was  the  first  power-driven  German  plane 
which  actually  flew. 

Eleven  months  after  the  Rheims  meeting  came 
what  may  be  reckoned  the  only  really  notable  aviation 
meeting  on  English  soil,  in  the  form  of  the  Bournemouth 
week,  July  loth  to  i6th,  1910.  This  gathering  is 

207 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

noteworthy  mainly  in  view  of  the  amazing  advance 
which  it  registered  on  the  Rheims  performances. 
Thus,  in  the  matter  of  altitude,  Morane  reached  4, 1 07 
feet  and  Drexel  came  second  with  2,490  feet.  Audemars 
on  a  Demoiselle  monoplane  made  a  flight  of  17  miles 
1,480  yards  in  27  minutes  17.2  seconds,  a  great  flight 
for  the  little  Demoiselle.  Morane  achieved  a  speed  of 
56.64  miles  per  hour,  and  Grahame  White  climbed  to 
1,000  feet  altitude  in  6  minutes  36.8  seconds.  Machines 
carrying  the  Gnome  engine  as  power  unit  took  the 
great  bulk  of  the  prizes,  and  British-built  engines 
were  far  behind. 

The  Bournemouth  Meeting  will  always  be 
remembered  with  regret  for  the  tragedy  of  C.  S.  Rolls's 
death,  which  took  place  on  the  Tuesday,  the  second 
day  of  the  meeting.  The  first  competition  of  the 
day  was  that  for  the  landing  prize;  Grahame  White, 
Audemars,  and  Captain  Dickson  had  landed  with 
varying  luck,  and  Rolls,  following  on  a  Wright  machine 
with  a  tail-plane  which  ought  never  to  have  been  fitted 
and  was  not  part  of  the  Wright  design,  came  down 
wind  after  a  left-hand  turn  and  turned  left  again  over 
the  top  of  the  stands  in  order  to  land  up  wind.  He 
began  to  dive  when  just  clear  of  the  stands,  and  had 
dropped  to  a  height  of  40  feet  when  he  came  over  the 
heads  of  the  people  against  the  barriers.  Finding  his 
descent  too  steep,  he  pulled  back  his  elevator  lever  to 
bring  the  nose  of  the  machine  up,  tipping  down  the 
front  end  of  the  tail  to  present  an  almost  flat  surface  to 
the  wind.  Had  all  gone  well,  the  nose  of  the  machine 
would  have  been  forced  up,  but  the  strain  on  the  tail 
and  its  four  light  supports  was  too  great;  the  tail 
collapsed,  the  wind  pressed  down  the  biplane  elevator, 

208 


Rolls  executing  a  turn  (note  tilt), 


Fatal  accident  to  Rolls. 
Bournemouth  Aviation  Week. 


To  face  page  208 


RHEIMS,  AND  AFTER 

and  the  machine  dived  vertically  for  the  remaining  20 
feet  of  the  descent,  hitting  the  ground  vertically  and 
crumpling  up.  Major  Kennedy,  first  to  reach  the 
debris,  found  Rolls  lying  with  his  head  doubled  under 
him  on  the  overturned  upper  main  plane;  the  lower 
plane  had  been  flung  some  few  feet  away  with  the  engine 
and  tanks  under  it.  Rolls  was  instantaneously  killed 
by  concussion  of  the  brain. 

Antithesis  to  the  tragedy  was  Audemars  on  his 
Demoiselle,  which  was  named  *  The  Infuriated  Grass- 
hopper/ Concerning  this,  it  was  recorded  at  the  time 
that  *  Nothing  so  excruciatingly  funny  as  the  action  of 
this  machine  has  ever  been  seen  at  any  aviation  ground. 
The  little  two-cylinder  engine  pops  away  with  a  sound 
like  the  frantic  drawing  of  ginger  beer  corks;  the 
machine  scutters  along  the  ground  with  its  tail  well  up; 
then  down  comes  the  tail  suddenly  and  seems  to  slap 
the  ground  while  the  front  jumps  up,  and  all  the  specta- 
tors rock  with  laughter.  The  whole  attitude  and  the 
jerky  action  of  the  machine  suggest  a  grasshopper  in  a 
furious  rage,  and  the  impression  is  intensified  when 
it  comes  down,  as  it  did  twice  on  Wednesday,  in  long 
grass,  burying  its  head  in  the  ground  in  its  temper.' — 
(The  Aero^  July,  1910.) 

The  Lanark  Meeting  followed  in  August  of  th£ 
same  year,  and  with  the  bare  mention  of  this,  the  subject 
of  flying  meetings  may  be  left  alone,  since  they  became 
mere  matters  of  show  until  there  came  military  com- 
petitions such  as  the  Berlin  Meeting  at  the  end  of 
August,  1910,  and  the  British  War  Office  Trials  on 
Salisbury  Plain,  when  Cody  won  his  greatest  triumphs. 
The  Berlin  meeting  proved  that,  from  the  time  of  the 
construction  of  the  first  successful  German  machine 

209 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

mentioned  above,  to  the  date  of  the  meeting,  a  good 
number  of  German  aviators  had  qualified  for  flight, 
but  principally  on  Wright  and  Antoinette  machines, 
though  by  that  time  the  Aviatik  and  Dorner  German 
makes  had  taken  the  air.  The  British  War  Office 
Trials  deserve  separate  and  longer  mention. 

In  1910  in  spite  of  official  discouragement,  Captain 
Dickson  proved  the  value  of  the  aeroplane  for  scouting 
purposes  by  observing  movements  of  troops  during 
the  Military  Manoeuvres  on  Salisbury  Plain.  Lieut. 
Lancelot  Gibbs  and  Robert  Loraine,  the  actor-aviator, 
also  made  flights  over  the  manoeuvre  area,  locating 
troops  and  in  a  way  anticipating  the  formation  and  work 
of  the  Royal  Flying  Corps  by  a  usefulness  which  could 
not  be  officially  recognised. 


210 


XV 


THE    CHANNEL    CROSSING 


IT  may  be  said  that  Louis  Bleriot  was  responsible  for 
the  second  great  landmark  in  the  history  of  successful 
flight.  The  day  when  the  brothers  Wright  succeeded 
in  accomplishing  power-driven  flight  ranks  as  the  first 
of  these  landmarks.  Ader  may  or  may  not  have  left 
the  ground,  but  the  wreckage  of  his  *  Avion  '  at  the 
end  of  his  experiment  places  his  doubtful  success  in  a 
different  category  from  that  of  the  brothers  Wright 
and  leaves  them  the  first  definite  conquerors,  just  as 
Bleriot  ranks  as  first  definite  conqueror  of  the  English 
Channel  by  air. 

In  a  way,  Louis  Bleriot  ranks  before  Farman  in 
point  of  time;  his  first  flapping.wing  model  was  built 
as  early  as  1900,  and  Voisin  flew  a  biplane  glider  of  his 
on  the  Seine  in  the  very  early  experimental  days. 
Bleriot's  first  four  machines  were  biplanes,  and  his  fifth, 
a  monoplane,  was  wrecked  almost  immediately  after  its 
construction.  Bleriot  had  studied  Langley's  work  to 
a  certain  extent,  and  his  sixth  construction  was  a  double 
monoplane  based  on  the  Langley  principle.  A  month 
after  he  had  wrecked  this  without  damaging  himself — 
for  Bleriot  had  as  many  miraculous  escapes  as  any  of 
the  other  fliers — he  brought  out  number  seven,  a  fairly 
average  monoplane.  It  was  in  December  of  1907 
after  a  series  of  flights  that  he  wrecked  this  machine, 

211 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

and  on  its  successor,  in  July  of  1908,  he  made  a  flight 
of  over  8  minutes.  Sundry  flights,  more  or  less  successful, 
including  the  first  cross-country  flight  from  Toury  to 
Artenay,  kept  him  busy  up  to  the  beginning  of  November, 
1908,  when  the  wreckage  in  a  fog  of  the  machine  he 
was  flying  sent  him  to  the  building  of '  number  eleven,' 
the  famous  cross-channel  aeroplane. 

Number  eleven  was  shown  at  the  French  Aero 
Show  in  the  Grand  Palais  and  was  given  its  first  trials 
on  the  1 8th  January,  1909.  It  was  first  fitted  with  a 
R.E.P.  motor  and  had  a  lifting  area  of  120  square  feet, 
which  was  later  increased  to  150  square  feet.  The 
framework  was  of  oak  and  poplar  spliced  and  reinforced 
with  piano  wire;  the  weight  of  the  machine  was  47 
Ibs.  and  the  undercarriage  weight  a  further  60  Ibs., 
this  consisting  of  rubber  cord  shock  absorbers  mounted 
on  two  wheels.  The  R.E.P.  motor  was  found  un- 
satisfactory, and  a  three-cylinder  Anzani  of  105  mm. 
bore  and  120  mm.  stroke  replaced  it.  An  accident 
seriously  damaged  the  machine  on  June  2nd,  but  Bleriot 
repaired  it  and  tested  it  at  Issy,  where  between  June 
1 9th  and  June  23rd  he  accomplished  flights  of  8,  12,  15, 
1 6,  and  36  minutes.  On  July  4th  he  made  a  5o-minute 
flight  and  on  the  I3th  flew  from  Etampes  to  Chevilly. 

A  few  further  details  of  construction  may  be  given : 
the  wings  themselves  and  an  elevator  at  the  tail  controlled 
the  rate  of  ascent  and  descent,  while  a  rudder  was  also 
fitted  at  the  tail.  The  steering  lever,  working  on  a  uni- 
versally jointed  shaft — forerunner  of  the  modern  joy- 
stick— controlled  both  the  rudder  and  the  wings,  while 
a  pedal  actuated  the  elevator.  The  engine  drove  a 
two-bladed  tractor  screw  of  6  feet  7  inches  diameter, 
and  the  angle  of  incidence  of  the  wings  was  20  degrees. 

212 


THE   CHANNEL  CROSSING 

Timed  at  Issy,  the  speed  of  the  machine  was  given  as 
36  miles  an  hour,  and  as  Bleriot  accomplished  the 
Channel  flight  of  20  miles  in  37  minutes,  he  probably 
had  a  slight  following  wind. 

The  Daily  Mail  had  offered  a  prize  of  £1,000  for 
the  first  Cross-Channel  flight,  and  Hubert  Latham  set 
his  mind  on  winning  it.  He  put  up  a  shelter  on  the 
French  coast  at  Sangatte,  half-way  between  Calais  and 
Cape  Blanc  Nez.  From  here  he  made  his  first  attempt 
to  fly  to  England  on  Monday  the  I9th  of  July.  He 
soared  to  a  fair  height,  circling,  and  reached  an  estimated 
height  of  about  900  feet  as  he  came  over  the  water 
with  every  appearance  of  capturing  the  Cross-Channel 
prize.  The  luck  which  dogged  his  career  throughout 
was  against  him,  for,  after  he  had  covered  some  8  miles, 
his  engine  stopped  and  he  came  down  to  the  water  in  a 
series  of  long  glides.  It  was  discovered  afterward  that 
a  small  piece  of  wire  had  worked  its  way  into  a  vital 
part  of  the  engine  to  rob  Latham  of  the  honour  he 
coveted.  The  tug  that  came  to  his  rescue  found  him 
seated  on  the  fuselage  of  his  Antoinette,  smoking  a 
cigarette  and  waiting  for  a  boat  to  take  him  to  the  tug. 
It  may  be  remarked  that  Latham  merely  assumed  his 
Antoinette  would  float  in  case  he  failed  to  make  the 
English  coast;  he  had  no  actual  proof. 

Bleriot  immediately  entered  his  machine  for  the 
prize  and  took  up  his  quarters  at  Barraques.  On  Sunday, 
July  25th,  1909,  shortly  after  4  a.m.,  Bleriot  had  his 
machine  taken  out  from  its  shelter  and  prepared 
for  flight.  He  had  been  recently  injured  in  a  petrol 
explosion  and  hobbled  out  on  crutches  to  make  his 
cross-Channel  attempt;  he  made  two  great  circles  in 
the  air  to  try  the  machine,  and  then  alighted.  *  In  ten 

213 


A  HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

minutes  I  start  for  England/  he  declared,  and  at  4.35 
the  motor  was  started  up.  After  a  run  of  100  yards, 
the  machine  rose  in  the  air  and  got  a  height  of  about 
100  feet  over  the  land,  then  wheeling  sharply  seaward 
and  heading  for  Dover. 

Bleriot  had  no  means  of  telling  direction,  and  any 
change  of  wind  might  have  driven  him  out  over  the 
North  Sea,  to  be  lost,  as  were  Cecil  Grace  and  Hamel 
later  on.  Luck  was  with  him,  however,  and  at  5.12 
a.m.  of  that  July  Sunday,  he  made  his  landing  in  the 
North  Fall  meadow,  just  behind  Dover  Castle.  Twenty 
minutes  out  from  the  French  coast,  he  lost  sight  of  the 
destroyer  which  was  patrolling  the  Channel,  and  at  the 
same  time  he  was  out  of  sight  of  land  without  compass 
or  any  other  means  of  ascertaining  his  direction.  Sighting 
the  English  coast,  he  found  that  he  had  gone  too  far 
to  the  east,  for  the  wind  increased  in  strength  throughout 
the  flight,  this  to  such  an  extent  as  almost  to  turn 
the  machine  round  when  he  came  over  English  soil. 
Profiting  by  Latham's  experience,  Bleriot  had  fitted 
an  inflated  rubber  cylinder  a  foot  in  diameter  by  5  feet 
in  length  along  the  middle  of  his  fuselage,  to  render 
floating  a  certainty  in  case  he  had  to  alight  on  the  water. 

Latham  in  his  camp  at  Sangatte  had  been  allowed 
to  sleep  through  the  calm  of  the  early  morning  through 
a  mistake  on  the  part  of  a  friend,  and  when  his  machine 
was  turned  out  in  order  that  he  might  emulate  Bleriot, 
although  he  no  longer  hoped  to  make  the  first  flight,  it 
took  so  long  to  get  the  machine  ready  and  dragged  up 
to  its  starting-point  that  there  was  a  25  mile  an  hour 
wind  by  the  time  everything  was  in  readiness.  Latham 
was  anxious  to  make  the  start  in  spite  of  the  wind,  but 
the  Directors  of  the  Antoinette  Company  refused 

214 


THE   CHANNEL  CROSSING 

permission.  It  was  not  until  two  days  later  that  the 
weather  again  became  favourable,  and  then  with  a  fresh 
machine,  since  the  one  on  which  he  made  his  first 
attempt  had  been  very  badly  damaged  in  being  towed 
ashore,  he  made  a  circular  trial  flight  of  about  5  miles. 
In  landing  from  this,  a  side  gust  of  wind  drove  the  nose 
of  the  machine  against  a  small  hillock,  damaging  both 
propeller  blades  and  chassis,  and  it  was  not  until  evening 
that  the  damage  was  repaired. 

French  torpedo  boats  were  set  to  mark  the  route, 
and  Latham  set  out  on  his  second  attempt  at  six  o'clock. 
Flying  at  a  height  of  200  feet,  he  headed  over  the  torpedo 
boats  for  Dover  and  seemed  certain  of  making  the 
English  coast,  but  a  mile  and  a  half  out  from  Dover 
his  engine  failed  him  again,  and  he  dropped  to  the 
water  to  be  picked  up  by  the  steam  pinnace  of  an  English 
warship  and  put  aboard  the  French  destroyer  Escopette. 

There  is  little  to  choose  between  the  two  aviators 
for  courage  in  attempting  what  would  have .  been  con- 
sidered a  foolhardy  feat  a  year  or  two  before.  Bleriot's 
state,  with  an  abscess  in  the  burnt  foot  which  had  to 
control  the  elevator  of  his  machine,  renders  his  success 
all  the  more  remarkable.  His  machine  was  exhibited 
in  London  for  a  time,  and  was  afterwards  placed  in  the 
Conservatoire  des  Arts  et  Metiers,  while  a  memorial 
in  stone,  copying  his  monoplane  in  form,  was  let  into 
the  turf  at  the  point  where  he  landed. 

The  second  Channel  crossing  was  not  made  until 
1910,  a  year  of  new  records.  The  altitude  record  had 
been  lifted  to  over  10,000  feet,  the  duration  record  to 
8  hours  12  minutes,  and  the  distance  for  a  single  flight 
to  365  miles,  while  a  speed  of  over  65  miles  an  hour 
had  been  achieved,  when  Jacques  de  Lesseps,  son  of 
H.A.  215  p 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

the  famous  engineer  of  Suez  Canal  and  Panama  fame, 
crossed  from  France  to  England  on  a  Bleriot  monoplane. 
By  this  time  flying  had  dropped  so  far  from  the  marvellous 
that  this  second  conquest  of  the  Channel  aroused  but 
slight  public  interest  in  comparison  with  Bleriot's  feat. 

The  total  weight  of  Bleriot's  machine  in  Cross 
Channel  trim  was  660  Ibs.,  including  the  pilot  and 
sufficient  petrol  for  a  three  hours'  run;  at  a  speed  of 
37  miles  an  hour,  it  was  capable  of  carrying  about  5  Ibs. 
per  square  foot  of  lifting  surface.  It  was  the  three- 
cylinder  25  horse-power  Anzani  motor  which  drove 
the  machine  for  the  flight.  Shortly  after  the  flight  had 
been  accomplished,  it  was  announced  that  the  Bleriot 
firm  would  construct  similar  machines  for  sale  at  £400 
apiece — a  good  commentary  on  the  prices  of  those  days. 

On  June  the  2nd,  1910,  the  third  Channel  crossing 
was  made  by  C.  S.  Rolls,  who  flew  from  Dover,  got 
himself  officially  observed  over  French  soil  at  Barraques, 
and  then  flew  back  without  landing.  He  was  the  first 
to  cross  from  the  British  side  of  the  Channel  and  also 
was  the  first  aviator  who  made  the  double  journey. 
By  that  time,  however,  distance  flights  had  so  far  increased 
as  to  reduce  the  value  of  the  feat,  and  thenceforth  the 
Channel  crossing  was  no  exceptional  matter.  The 
honour,  second  only  to  that  of  the  Wright  Brothers, 
remains  with  Bleriot. 


216 


XVI 

LONDON    TO    MANCHESTER 

THE  last  of  the  great  contests  to  arouse  public  enthusiasm 
was  the  London  to  Manchester  Flight  of  1910.  As 
far  back  as  1906,  the  Daily  Mail  had  offered  a  prize  of 
£  1 0,000  to  the  first  aviator  who  should  accomplish 
this  journey,  and,  for  a  long  time,  the  offer  was  regarded 
as  a  perfectly  safe  one  for  any  person  or  paper  to  make 
— it  brought  forth  far  more  ridicule  than  belief.  Punch 
offered  a  similar  sum  to  the  first  man  who  should  swim 
the  Atlantic  and  also  for  the  first  flight  to  Mars  and 
back  within  a  week,  but  in  the  spring  of  1910  Claude 
Grahame  White  and  Paulhan,  the  famous  French  pilot, 
entered  for  the  183  mile  run  on  which  the  prize  depended. 
Both  these  competitors  flew  the  Farman  biplane  with 
the  50  horse-power  Gnome  motor  as  propulsive  power. 
Grahame  White  surveyed  the  ground  along  the  route, 
and  the  L.  &  N.  W.  Railway  Company,  at  his  request, 
whitewashed  the  sleepers  for  100  yards  on  the  north 
side  of  all  junctions  to  give  him  his  direction  on  the 
course.  The  machine  was  run  out  on  to  the  starting 
ground  at  Park  Royal  and  set  going  at  5.19  a.m.  on 
April  23rd.  After  a  run  of  100  yards,  the  machine 
went  up  over  Wormwood  Scrubs  on  its  journey  to 
Normandy,  near  Hillmorten,  which  was  the  first  arranged 
stopping  place  en  route\  Grahame  White  landed  here  in 
good  trim  at  7.20  a.m.,  having  covered  75  miles  and 

217 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

made  a  world's  record  cross  country  flight.  At  8.15  he 
set  off  again  to  come  down  at  Whittington,  four  miles 
short  of  Lichfield,  at  about  9.20,  with  his  machine  in 
good  order  except  for  a  cracked  landing  skid.  Twice, 
on  this  second  stage  of  the  journey,  he  had  been  caught 
by  gusts  of  wind  which  turned  the  machine  fully  round 
toward  London,  and,  when  over  a  wood  near  Tamworth, 
the  engine  stopped  through  a  defect  in  the  balance 
springs  of  two  exhaust  valves;  although  it  started  up 
again  after  a  100  foot  glide,  it  did  not  give  enough 
power  to  give  him  safety  in  the  gale  he  was  facing.  The 
rising  wind  kept  him  on  the  ground  throughout  the 
day,  and,  though  he  hoped  for  better  weather,  the  gale 
kept  up  until  the  Sunday  evening.  The  men  in  charge 
of  the  machine  during  its  halt  had  attempted  to  hold 
the  machine  down  instead  of  anchoring  it  with  stakes 
and  ropes,  and,  in  consequence  of  this,  the  wind  blew 
the  machine  over  on  its  back,  breaking  the  upper  planes 
and  the  tail.  Grahame  White  had  to  return  to  London, 
while  the  damaged  machine  was  prepared  for  a  second 
flight.  The  conditions  of  the  competition  enacted  that 
the  full  journey  should  be  completed  within  24  hours, 
which  made  return  to  the  starting  ground  inevitable. 
Louis  Paulhan,  who  had  just  arrived  with  his  Farman 
machine,  immediately  got  it  unpacked  and  put  together 
in  order  to  be  ready  to  make  his  attempt  for  the  prize 
as  soon  as  the  weather  conditions  should  admit.  At 
5.31  p.m.,  on  April  2yth,  he  went  up  from  Hendon  and 
had  travelled  50  miles  when  Grahame  White,  informed 
of  his  rival's  start,  set  out  to  overtake  him.  Before 
nightfall  Paulhan  landed  at  Lichfield,  117  miles  from 
London,  while  Grahame  White  had  to  come  down  at 
Roden,  only  60  miles  out.  The  English  aviator's  chance 

218 


LONDON  TO  MANCHESTER 

was  not  so  small  as  it  seemed,  for,  as  Latham  had  found 
in  his  cross-Channel  attempts,  engine  failure  was  more 
the  rule  than  the  exception,  and  a  very  little  thing  might 
reverse  the  relative  positions. 

A  special  train  accompanied  Paulhan  along  the 
North- Western  route,  conveying  Madame  Paulhan, 
Henry  Farman,  and  the  mechanics  who  fitted  the 
Farman  biplane  together.  Paulhan  himself,  who  had 
flown  at  a  height  of  1,000  feet,  spent  the  night  at 
Lichfield,  starting  again  at  4.9  a.m.  on  the  28th,  passing 
Stafford  at  4.45,  Crewe  at  5.20,  and  landing  at  Burnage, 
near  Didsbury,  at  5.32,  having  had  a  clean  run. 

Meanwhile,  Grahame  White  had  made  a  most 
heroic  attempt  to  beat  his  rival.  An  hour  before  dawn 
on  the  28th,  he  went  to  the  small  field  in  which  his 
machine  had  landed,  and  in  the  darkness  managed  to 
make  an  ascent  from  ground  which  made  starting 
difficult  even  in  daylight.  Purely  by  instinct  and  his 
recollection  of  the  aspect  of  things  the  night  before, 
he  had  to  clear  telegraph  wires  and  a  railway  bridge, 
neither  of  which  he  could  possibly  see  at  that  hour. 
His  engine,  too,  was  faltering,  and  it  was  obvious  to 
those  who  witnessed  his  start  that  its  note  was  far  from 
perfect. 

At  3.50  he  was  over  Nuneaton  and  making  good 
progress;  between  Atherstone  and  Lichfield  the  wind 
caught  him  and  the  engine  failed  more  and  more,  until 
at  4.13  in  the  morning  he  was  forced  to  come  to  earth, 
having  covered  6  miles  less  distance  than  in  his  first 
attempt.  It  was  purely  a  case  of  engine  failure,  for, 
with  full  power,  he  would  have  passed  over  Paulhan 
just  as  the  latter  was  preparing  for  the  restart.  Taking 
into  consideration  the  two  machines,  there  is  little 

219 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

doubt  that  Grahame  White  showed  the  greater  flying 
skill,  although  he  lost  the  prize.  After  landing  and 
hearing  of  Paulhan's  victory,  on  which  he  wired  con- 
gratulations, he  made  up  his  mind  to  fly  to  Manchester 
within  the  24  hours.  He  started  at  5  o'clock  in  the 
afternoon  from  Polesworth,  his  landing  place,  but  was 
forced  to  land  at  5.30  at  Whittington,  where  he  had 
landed  on  the  previous  Saturday.  The  wind,  which 
had  forced  his  descent,  fell  again  and  permitted  of 
starting  once  more ;  on  this  third  stage  he  reached 
Lichfield,  only  to  make  his  final  landing  at  7.15  p.m., 
near  the  Trent  Valley  station.  The  defective  running 
of  the  Gnome  engine  prevented  his  completing  the 
course,  and  his  Farman  machine  had  to  be  brought 
back  to  London  by  rail. 

The  presentation  of  the  prize  to  Paulhan  was  made 
the  occasion  for  the  announcement  of  a  further  com- 
petition, consisting  of  a  1,000  mile  flight  round  a  part 
of  Great  Britain.  In  this,  nineteen  competitors  started, 
and  only  four  finished;  the  >end  of  the,  race  was  a  great 
fight  between  Beaumont  and  Vedrines,  both  of  whom 
scorned  weather  conditions  in  their  determination  to 
win.  Beaumont  made  the  distance  in  a  flying  time  of 
22  hours  28  minutes  19  seconds,  and  Vedrines  covered 
the  journey  in  a  little  over  23!  hours.  Valentine  came 
third  on  a  Deperdussin  monoplane  and  S.  F.  Cody  on 
his  Cathedral  biplane  was  fourth.  This  was  in  1911, 
and  by  that  time  heavier-than-air  flight  had  so  far 
advanced  that  some  pilots  had  had  war  experience  in 
the  Italian  campaign  in  Tripoli,  while  long  cross-country 
flights  were  an  everyday  event,  and  bad  weather  no 
longer  counted. 


220 


XVII 

A    SUMMARY,    TO    19 1 1 

THERE  is  so  much  overlapping  in  the  crowded  story 
of  the  first  years  of  successful  power-driven  flight  that 
at  this  point  it  is  advisable  to  make  a  concise  chronological 
survey  of  the  chief  events  of  the  period  of  early  develop- 
ment, although  much  of  this  is  of  necessity  recapitulation. 
The  story  begins,  of  course,  with  Orville  Wright's 
first  flight  of  852  feet  at  Kitty  Hawk  on  December  I9th, 
1903.  The  next  event  of  note  was  Wright's  flight  of 
1 1 . 1 2  miles  in  1 8  minutes  9  seconds  at  Dayton,  Ohio, 
on  September  26th,  1905,  this  being  the  first  officially 
recorded  flight.  On  October  4th  of  the  same  year, 
Wright  flew  20.75  miles  ln  33  minutes  17  seconds, 
this  being  the  first  flight  of  over  20  miles  ever  made. 
Then  on  September  I4th,  1906,  Alberto  Santos-Dumont 
made  a  flight  of  eight  seconds  on  the  second  heavier- 
than-air  machine  he  had  constructed.  It  was  a  big 
box-kite-like  machine;  this  was  the  second  power- 
driven  aeroplane  in  Europe  to  fly,  for  although  Santos- 
Dumont's  first  machine  produced  in  1905  was  reckoned 
an  unsuccessful  design,  it  had  actually  got  off  the  ground 
for  brief  periods.  Louis  Bleriot  came  into  the  ring  on 
April  5th,  1907,  with  a  first  flight  of  6  seconds  on  a 
Bleriot  mcnophne,  his  eighth  but  first  successful 
construction. 

Henry   Farman   made  his   first  appearance   in   the 

221 


A  HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

history  of  aviation  with  a  flight  of  935  feet  on  a  Voisin 
biplane  on  October  I5th,  1907.  On  October  25th, 
in  a  flight  of  2,530  feet,  he  made  the  first  recorded  turn 
in  the  air,  and  on  March  29th,  1908,  carrying  Leon 
Delagrange  on  a  Voisin  biplane,  he  made  the  first 
passenger  flight.  On  April  loth  of  this  year,  Delagrange, 
in  flying  ij  miles,  made  the  first  flight  in  Europe 
exceeding  a  mile  in  distance.  He  improved  on  this  by 
flying  io|  miles  at  Milan  on  June  22nd,  while  on  July 
8th,  at  Turin,  he  took  up  Madame  Peltier,  the  first 
woman  to  make  an  aeroplane  flight. 

Wilbur  Wright,  coming  over  to  Europe,  made  his 
first  appearance  on  the  Continent  with  a  flight  of  if 
minutes  at  Hunaudieres,  France,  on  August  8th,  1908. 
On  September  6th,  at  Chalons,  he  flew  for  i  hour  4 
minutes  26  seconds  with  a  passenger,  this  being  the 
first  flight  in  which  an  hour  in  the  air  was  exceeded 
with  a  passenger  on  board. 

On  September  I2th,  1908,  Orville  Wright,  flying 
at  Fort  Meyer,  U.S.A.,  with  Lieut.  Selfridge  as 
passenger,  crashed  his  machine,  suffering  severe  injuries, 
while  Selfridge  was  killed.  This  was  the  first  aeroplane 
fatality.  On  October  3oth,  1908,  Farman  made  the 
first  cross-country  flight,  covering  the  distance  of  17 
miles  between  Bouy  and  Rheims.  The  next  day,  Louis 
Bleriot,  in  flying  from  Toury  to  Artenay,  made  two 
landings  en  route^  this  being  the  first  cross-country 
flight  with  landings.  On  the  last  day  of  the  year, 
Wilbur  Wright  won  the  Michelin  Cup  at  Auvours 
with  a  flight  of  90  miles,  which,  lasting  2  hours  20 
minutes  23  seconds,  exceeded  2  hours  in  the  air  for  the 
first  time. 

On  January  2nd,  1909,  S.  F.  Cody  opened  the  New 

222 


A   SUMMARY— TO    1911 

Year  by  making  the  first  observed  flight  at  Farnborough 
on  a  British  Army  aeroplane.  It  was  not  until  July 
1 8th  of  1909  that  the  first  European  height  record 
deserving  of  mention  was  put  up  by  Paulhan,  who 
achieved  a  height  of  450  feet  on  a  Voisin  biplane.  This 
preceded  Latham's  first  attempt  to  fly  the  Channel 
by  two  days,  and  five  days  later,  on  the  2£th  of  the 
month,  Bleriot  made  the  first  Channel  crossing.  The 
Rheims  Meeting  followed  on  August  22nd,  and  it  was 
a  great  day  for  aviation  when  nine  machines  were  seen 
in  the  air  at  once.  It  was  here  that  Farman,  with  a  1 1 8 
mile  flight,  first  exceeded  the  hundred  miles,  and 
Latham  raised  the  height  record  officially  to  500  feet, 
though  actually  he  claimed  to  have  reached  1,200  feet. 
On  September  8th,  Cody,  flying  from  Aldershot,  made 
a  40  mile  journey,  setting  up  a  new  cross-country  record. 
On  October  I9th  the  Comte  de  Lambert  flew  from 
Juvisy  to  Paris,  rounded  the  Eiffel  Tower  and  flew 
back.  J.  T.  C.  Moore-Brabazon  made  the  first  circular 
mile  flight  by  a  British  aviator  on  an  all-British  machine 
in  Great  Britain,  on  October  3oth,  flying  a  Short  biplane 
with  a  Green  engine.  Paulhan,  flying  at  Brooklands 
on  November  2nd,  accomplished  96  miles  in  2  hours 
48  minutes,  creating  a  British  distance  record;  on  the 
following  day,  Henry  Farman  made  a  flight  of  150 
miles  in  4  hours  22  minutes  at  Mourmelon,  and  on  the 
5th  of  the  month,  Paulhan,  flying  a  Farman  biplane, 
made  a  world's  height  record  of  977  feet.  This,  however, 
was  not  to  stand  long,  for  Latham  got  up  to  1,560  feet 
on  an  Antoinette  at  Mourmelon  on  December  ist. 
December  3ist  witnessed  the  first  flight  in  Ireland,  made 
by  H.  Ferguson  on  a  monoplane  which  he  himself  had 
constructed  at  Downshire  Park,  Lisburn. 

223 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

These,  thus  briefly  summarised,  are  the  principal 
events  up  to  the  end  of  1 909.  1910  opened  with  tragedy, 
for  on  January  4th  Leon  Delagrange,  one  of  the  greatest 
pilots  of  his  time,  was  killed  while  flying  at  Pau.  The 
machine  was  the  Bleriot  XI  which  Delagrange  had 
used  at  the  Doncaster  meeting,  and  to  which  Delagrange 
had  fitted  a  50  horse-power  Gnome  engine,  increasing 
the  speed  of  the  machine  from  its  original  30  to  45  miles 
per  hour.  With  the  Rotary  Gnome  engine  there  was 
of  necessity  a  certain  gyroscopic  effect,  the  strain  of 
which  proved  too  much  for  the  machine.  Delagrange 
had  come  to  assist  in  the  inauguration  of  the  Croix 
d'Hins  aerodrome,  and  had  twice  lapped  the  course  at 
a  height  of  about  60  feet.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
third  lap,  the  strain  of  the  Gnome  engine  became  too 
great  for  the  machine;  one  wing  collapsed  as  if  the 
stay  wires  had  broken,  and  the  whole  machine  turned 
over  and  fell,  killing  Delagrange. 

On  January  yth  Latham,  flying  at  Mourmelon, 
first  made  the  vertical  kilometre  and  dedicated  the 
record  to  Delagrange,  this  being  the  day  of  his  friend's 
funeral.  The  record  was  thoroughly  authenticated 
by  a  large  registering  barometer  which  Latham  carried, 
certified  by  the  officials  of  the  French  Aero  Club.  Three 
days  later  Paulhan,  who  was  at  Los  Angeles,  California, 
raised  the  height  record  to  4,146  feet. 

On  January  25th  the  Brussels  Exhibition  opened, 
when  the  Antoinette  monoplane,  the  Gaffaux  and 
Hanriot  monoplanes,  together  with  the  d'Hespel 
aeroplane,  were  shown;  there  were  also  the  dirigible 
Belgica  and  a  number  of  interesting  aero  engines, 
including  a  German  airship  engine  and  a  four-cylinder 
50  horse-power  Miesse,  this  last  air-cooled  by  means  of 

224 


A  SUMMARY— TO   1911 

fans  driving  a  current  of  air  through  air  jackets  sur- 
rounding fluted  cylinders. 

On  April  2nd  Hubert  Le  Blon,  flying  a  Bleriot 
with  an  Anzani  engine,  was  killed  while  flying  over  the 
water.  His  machine  was  flying  quite  steadily,  when 
it  suddenly  heeled  over  and  came  down  sideways  into 
the  sea;  the  motor  continued  running  for  some  seconds 
and  the  whole  machine  was  drawn  under  water.  When 
boats  reached  the  spot,  Le  Blon  was  found  lying  back 
in  the  driving  seat  floating  just  below  the  surface.  He 
had  done  good  flying  at  Doncaster,  and  at  Heliopolis 
had  broken  the  world's  speed  records  for  5  and  10 
kilometres.  The  accident  was  attributed  to  fracture 
of  one  of  the  wing  stay  wires  when  running  into  a  gust 
of  wind. 

The  next  notable  event  was  Paulhan's  London- 
Manchester  flight,  of  which  full  details  have  already 
been  given.  In  May  Captain  Bertram  Dickson,  flying 
at  the  Tours  meeting,  beat  all  the  Continental  fliers  whom 
he  encountered,  including  Chavez,  the  Peruvian,  who 
later  made  the  first  crossing  of  the  Alps.  Dickson  was 
the  first  British  winner  of  international  aviation  prizes. 

C.  S.  Rolls,  of  whom  full  details  have  already  been 
given,  was  killed  at  Bournemouth  on  July  I2th,  being 
the  first  British  aviator  of  note  to  be  killed  in  an  aeroplane 
accident.  His  return  trip  across  the  Channel  had  taken 
place  on  June  2nd.  Chavez,  who  was  rapidly  leaping 
into  fame,  as  a  pilot,  raised  the  British  height  record 
to  5,750  feet  while  flying  at  Blackpool  on  August  3rd. 
On  the  1 1  th  of  that  month,  Armstrong  Drexel,  flying 
a  Bleriot,  made  a  world's  height  record  of  6,745  feet. 

It  was  in  1910  that  the  British  War  Office  first 
began  fully  to  realise  that  there  might  be  military 

225 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

possibilities  in  heavier-than-air  flying.  C.  S.  Rolls  had 
placed  a  Wright  biplane  at  the  disposal  of  the  military 
authorities,  and  Cody,  as  already  recorded,  had  been 
experimenting  with  a  biplane  type  of  his  own  for  some 
long  period.  Such  development  as  was  achieved  was 
mainly  due  to  the  enterprise  and  energy  of  Colonel 
J.  E.  Capper,  C.B.,  appointed  to  the  superintendency 
of  the  Balloon  Factory  and  Balloon  School  at  Farn- 
borough  in  1906.  Colonel  Capper's  retirement  in  1910 
brought  (then)  Mr  Mervyn  O'Gorman  to  command, 
and  by  that  time  the  series  of  successes  of  the  Cody 
biplane,  together  with  the  proved  efficiency  of  the 
aeroplane  in  various  civilian  meetings,  had  convinced 
the  British  military  authorities  that  the  mastery  of  the 
air  did  not  lie  altogether  with  dirigible  airships,  and  it 
may  be  said  that  in  1910  the  British  War  Office  first 
began  seriously  to  consider  the  possibilities  of  the 
aeroplane,  though  two  years  more  were  to  elapse  before 
the  formation  of  the  Royal  Flying  Corps  marked  full 
realisation  of  its  value. 

A  triumph  and  a  tragedy  were  combined  in 
September  of  1910.  On  the  23rd  of  the  month,  Georges 
Chavez  set  out  to  fly  across  the  Alps  on  a  Bleriot  mono- 
plane. Prizes  had  been  offered  by  the  Milan  Aviation 
Committee  for  a  flight  from  Brigue  in  Switzerland 
over  the  Simplon  Pass  to  Milan,  a  distance  of  94  miles 
with  a  minimum  height  of  6,600  feet  above  sea  level. 
Chavez  started  at  1.30  p.m.  on  the  23rd,  and  41  minutes 
later  he  reached  Domodossola,  25  miles  distant.  Here 
he  descended,  numbed  with  the  cold  of  the  journey; 
it  was  said  that  the  wings  of  his  machine  collapsed 
when  about  30  feet  from  the  ground,  but  however  this 
may  have  been,  he  smashed  the  machine  on  landing, 

226 


Chavez  flying  across  the  Alps. 


To  face  page  ^26 


A   SUMMARY— TO    1911 

and  broke  both  legs,  in  addition  to  sustaining  other 
serious  injuries.  He  lay  in  hospital  until  the  2yth 
September,  when  he  died,  having  given  his  life  to  the 
conquest  of  the  Alps.  His  death  in  the  moment  of 
success  was  as  great  a  tragedy  as  were  those  of  Pilcher 
and  Lilienthal. 

The  day  after  Chavez's  death,  Maurice  Tabuteau 
flew  across  the  Pyrenees,  landing  in  the  square  at 
Biarritz.  On  December  3oth,  Tabuteau  made  a  flight 
of  365  miles  in  7  hours  48  minutes.  Farman,  on 
December  i8th,  had  flown  for  over  8  hours,  but  his 
total  distance  was  only  282  miles.  The  autumn  of  this 
year  was  also  noteworthy  for  the  fact  that  aeroplanes 
were  first  successfully  used  in  the  French  Military 
Manoeuvres.  The  British  War  Office,  by  the  end  of 
the  year,  had  bought  two  machines,  a  military  type 
Farman  and  a  Paulhan,  ignoring  British  experimenters 
and  aeroplane  builders  of  proved  reliability.  These 
machines,  added  to  an  old  Bleriot  two-seater,  appear 
to  have  constituted  the  British  aeroplane  fleet  of  the 
period. 

There  were  by  this  time  three  main  centres  of 
aviation  in  England,  apart  from  Cody,  alone  on  Laffan's 
Plain.  These  three  were  Brooklands,  Hendon,  and 
the  Isle  of  Sheppey,  and  of  the  three  Brooklands  was 
chief.  Here  such  men  as  Graham  Gilmour,  Rippen, 
Leake,  Wickham,  and  Thomas  persistently  experimented. 
Hendon  had  its  own  little  group,  and  Shellbeach,  Isle 
of  Sheppey,  held  such  giants  of  those  days  as  C.  S. 
Rolls  and  Moore  Brabazon,  together  with  Cecil  Grace 
and  Rawlinson.  One  or  other,  and  sometimes  all  of 
these  were  deserted  on  the  occasion  of  some  meeting 
or  other,  but  they  were  the  points  where  the  spade 

227 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

work  was  done,  Brooklands  taking  chief  place.  '  If 
you  want  the  early  history  of  flying  in  England,  it  is 
there,'  one  of  the  early  school  remarked,  pointing  over 
toward  Brooklands  course. 

1911  inaugurated  a  new  series  of  records  of  varying 
character.  On  the  I7th  January,  E.  B.  Ely,  an 
American,  flew  from  the  shore  of  San  Francisco  to  the 
U.S.  cruiser  Pennsylvania,  landing  on  the  cruiser,  and 
then  flew  back  to  the  shore.  The  British  military 
designing  of  aeroplanes  had  been  taken  up  at  Farn- 
borough  by  G.  H.  de  Havilland,  who  by  the  end  of 
January  was  flying  a  machine  of  his  own  design,  when 
he  narrowly  escaped  becoming  a  casualty  through 
collision  with  an  obstacle  on  the  ground,  which  swept 
the  undercarriage  from  his  machine. 

A  list  of  certified  pilots  of  the  countries  of  the 
world  was  issued  early  in  1911,  showing  certificates 
granted  up  to  the  end  of  1910.  France  led  the  way 
easily  with  353  pilots;  England  came  next  with  57, 
and  Germany  next  with  46;  Italy  owned  32,  Belgium 
27,  America  26,  and  Austria  19;  Holland  and  Switzer- 
land had  6  aviators  apiece,  while  Denmark  followed 
with  3,  Spain  with  2,  and  Sweden  with  i.  The  first 
certificate  in  England  was  that  of  J.  T.  C.  Moore- 
Brabazon,  while  Louis  Bleriot  was  first  on  the  French 
list  and  Glenn  Curtiss,  first  holder  of  an  American 
certificate,  also  held  the  second  French  brevet. 

On  the  7th  March,  Eugene  Renaux  won  the 
Michelin  Grand  Prize  by  flying  from  the  French  Aero 
Club  ground  at  St  Cloud  and  landing  on  the  Puy  de 
Dome.  The  landing,  which  was  one  of  the  conditions 
of  the  prize,  was  one  of  the  most  dangerous  conditions 
ever  attached  to  a  competition;  it  involved  dropping 

228 


A  SUMMARY— TO    1911 

on  to  a  little  plateau  150  yards  square,  with  a  possibility 
of  either  smashing  the  machine  against  the  face  of  the 
mountain,  or  diving  over  the  edge  of  the  plateau  into 
the  gulf  beneath.  The  length  of  the  journey  was  slightly 
over  200  miles  and  the  height  of  the  landing  point 
1,465  metres,  or  roughly  4,500  feet  above  sea-level. 
Renaux  carried  a  passenger,  Doctor  Senoucque,  a 
member  of  Charcot's  South  Polar  Expedition. 

The  1911  Aero  Exhibition  held  at  Olympia  bore 
witness  to  the  enormous  strides  made  in  construction, 
more  especially  by  British  designers,  between  1908 
and  the  opening  of  the  Show.  The  Bristol  Firm  showed 
three  machines,  including  a  military  biplane,  and  the 
first  British  built  biplane  with  tractor  screw.  The 
Cody  biplane,  with  its  enormous  size  rendering  it  a 
prominent  feature  of  the  show,  was  exhibited.  Its 
designer  anticipated  later  engines  by  expressing  his 
desire  for  a  motor  of  150  horse-power,  which  in  his 
opinion  was  necessary  to  get  the  best  results  from  the 
machine.  The  then  famous  Dunne  monoplane  was 
exhibited  at  this  show,  its  planes  being  V-shaped  in 
plan,  with  apex  leading.  It  embodied  the  results  of  very 
lengthy  experiments  carried  out  both  with  gliders  and 
power-driven  machines  by  Colonel  Capper,  Lieut. 
Gibbs,  and  Lieut.  Dunne,  and  constituted  the  longest 
step  so  far  taken  in  the  direction  of  inherent  stability. 

Such  forerunners  of  the  notable  planes  of  the  war 
period  as  the  Martin  Handasyde,  the  Nieuport,  Sopwith, 
Bristol,  and  Farman  machines,  were  features  of  the 
show;  the  Handley-Page  monoplane,  with  a  span  of 
32  feet  over  all,  a  length  of  22  feet,  and  a  weight  of 
422  Ibs.,  bore  no  relation  at  all  to  the  twin-engined 
giant  which  later  made  this  firm  famous.  In  the  matter 

229 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

of  engines,  the  principal  survivals  to  the  present  day, 
of  which  this  show  held  specimens,  were  the  Gnome, 
Green,  Renault  air-cooled,  Mercedes  four-cylinder 
dirigible  engine  of  115  horse-power,  and  120  horse- 
power Wolseley  of  eight  cylinders  for  use  with  dirigibles. 

On  April  I2th  of  1911,  Paprier,  instructor  at  the 
Bleriot  school  at  Hendon,  made  the  first  non-stop  flight 
between  London  and  Paris.  He  left  the  aerodrome  at 
1.37  p.m.,  and  arrived  at  Issy-les-Moulineaux  at  5.33 
p.m.,  thus  travelling  250  miles  in  a  little  under  4  hours. 
He  followed  the  railway  route  practically  throughout, 
crossing  from  Dover  to  nearly  opposite  Calais,  keeping 
along  the  coast  to  Boulogne,  and  then  following  the 
Nord  Railway  to  Amiens,  Beauvais,  and  finally  Paris. 

In  May,  the  Paris-Madrid  race  took  place; 
Vedrines,  flying  a  Morane  biplane,  carried  off  the  prize 
by  first  completing  the  distance  of  732  miles.  The 
Paris-Rome  race  of  916  miles  was  won  in  the  same 
month  by  Beaumont,  flying  a  Bleriot  monoplane.  In 
July,  Kcenig  won  the  German  National  Circuit  race 
of  i, 1 68  miles  on  an  Albatross  biplane.  This  was 
practically  simultaneous  with  the  Circuit  of  Britain 
won  by  Beaumont,  who  covered  1,010  miles  on  a 
Bleriot  monoplane,  having  already  won  the  Paris- 
Brussels-London-Paris  Circuit  of  1,080  miles,  this 
also  on  a  Bleriot.  It  was  in  August  that  a  new  world's 
height  record  of  11,152  feet  was  set  up  by  Captain 
Felix  at  Etampes,  while  on  the  7th  of  the  month 
Renaux  flew  nearly  600  miles  on  a  Maurice  Farman 
machine  in  1 2  hours.  Cody  and  Valentine  were  keeping 
interest  alive  in  the  Circuit  of  Britain  race,  although 
this  had  long  been  won,  by  determinedly  plodding  on 
at  finishing  the  course. 

230 


A   SUMMARY— TO    1911 

On  September  9th,  the  first  aerial  post  was  tried 
between  Hendon  and  Windsor,  as  an  experiment  in 
sending  mails  by  aeroplane.  Gustave  Hamel  flew  from 
Hendon  to  Windsor  and  back  in  a  strong  wind.  A 
few  days  later,  Hamel  went  on  strike,  refusing  to  carry 
further  mails  unless  the  promoters  of  the  Aerial  Postal 
Service  agreed  to  pay  compensation  to  Hubert,  who 
fractured  both  his  legs  on  the  nth  of  the  month  while 
engaged  in  aero  postal  work.  The  strike  ended  on 
September  25th,  when  Hamel  resumed  mail-carrying 
in  consequence  of  the  capitulation  of  the  Postmaster- 
General,  who  agreed  to  set  aside  £500  as  compensation 
to  Hubert. 

September  also  witnessed  the  completion  in  America 
of  a  flight  across  the  Continent,  a  distance  of  2,600 
miles.  The  only  competitor  who  completed  the  full 
distance  was  C.  P.  Rogers,  who  was  disqualified  through 
failing  to  comply  with  the  time  limit.  Rogers  needed 
so  many  replacements  to  his  machine  on  the  journey 
that,  expressing  it  in  American  fashion,  he  arrived 
with  practically  a  different  aeroplane  from  that  with 
which  he  started. 

With  regard  to  the  aerial  postal  service,  analysis 
of  the  matter  carried  and  the  cost  of  the  service  seemed 
to  show  that  with  a  special  charge  of  one  shilling  for 
letters  and  sixpence  for  post  cards,  the  revenue  just 
balanced  the  expenditure.  It  was  not  possible  to  keep 
to  the  time-table  as,  although  the  trials  were  made  in 
the  most  favourable  season  of  the  year,  aviation  was  not 
sufficiently  advanced  to  admit  of  facing  all  weathers 
and  complying  with  time-table  regulations. 

French  military  aeroplane  trials  took  place  at 
Rheims  in  October,  the  noteworthy  machines  being 
H.A.  231  Q 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

Antoinette,  Farman,  Nieuport,  and  Deperdussin.  The 
tests  showed  the  Nieuport  monoplane  with  Gnome  motor 
as  first  in  position;  the  Breguet  biplane  was  second, 
and  the  Deperdussin  monoplanes  third.  The  first  five 
machines  in  order  of  merit  were  all  engined  with  the 
Gnome  motor. 

The  records  quoted  for  1911  form  the  best  evidence 
that  can  be  given  of  advance  in  design  and  performance 
during  the  year.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  days  of  the 
giants  were  over;  design  was  becoming  more  and 
more  standardised  and  aviation  not  so  much  a  matter 
of  individual  courage  and  even  daring,  as  of  the  reliability 
of  the  machine  and  its  engine.  This  was  the  first  year 
in  which  the  twin-engined  aeroplane  made  its  appearance, 
and  it  was  the  year,  too,  in  which  flying  may  be  said  to 
have  grown  so  common  that  the  *  meetings '  which 
began  with  Rheims  were  hardly  worth  holding,  owing 
to  the  fact  that  increase  in  height  and  distance  flown 
rendered  it  no  longer  necessary  for  a  would-be  spectator 
of  a  flight  to  pay  half  a  crown  and  enter  an  enclosure. 
Henceforth,  flying  as  a  spectacle  was  very  little  to  be 
considered;  its  commercial  aspects  were  talked  of,  and 
to  a  very  slight  degree  exploited,  but,  more  and  more, 
the  fact  that  the  aeroplane  was  primarily  an  engine  of 
war,  and  the  growing  German  menace  against  the 
peace  of  the  world  combined  to  point  the  way  of  speediest 
development,  and  the  arrangements  for  the  British 
Military  Trials  to  be  held  in  August,  1912,  showed  that 
even  the  British  War  Office  was  waking  up  to  the 
potentialities  of  this  new  engine  of  war. 


232 


XVIII 

A   SUMMARY,   TO    1914 

CONSIDERATION  of  the  events  in  the  years  immediately 
preceding  the  War  must  be  limited  to  as  brief  a  summary 
as  possible,  this  not  only  because  the  full  history  of 
flying  achievements  is  beyond  the  compass  of  any  single 
book,  but  also  because,  viewing  the  matter  in  perspective, 
the  years  1903-1911  show  up  as  far  more  important 
as  regards  both  design  and  performance.  From  1912 
to  August  of  1914,  the  development  of  aeronautics 
was  hindered  by  the  fact  that  it  had  not  progressed  far 
enough  to  form  a  real  commercial  asset  in  any  country. 
The  meetings  which  drew  vast  concourses  of  people 
to  such  places  as  Rheims  and  Bournemouth  may  have 
been  financial  successes  at  first,  but,  as  flying  grew 
more  common  and  distances  and  heights  extended, 
a  great  many  people  found  it  other  than  worth  while 
to  pay  for  admission  to  an  aerodrome.  The  business 
of  taking  up  passengers  for  pleasure  flights  was  not 
financially  successful,  and,  although  schemes  for  com- 
mercial routes  were  talked  of,  the  aeroplane  was  not 
sufficiently  advanced  to  warrant  the  investment  of  hard 
cash  in  any  of  these  projects.  There  was  a  deadlock; 
further  development  was  necessary  in  order  to  secure 
financial  aid,  and  at  the  same  time  financial  aid  was 
necessary  in  order  to  secure  further  development. 
Consequently,  neither  was  forthcoming. 

333 


A   HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

This  is  viewing  the  matter  in  a  broad  and  general 
sense;  there  were  firms,  especially  in  France,  but  also 
in  England  and  America,  which  looked  confidently 
for  the  great  days  of  flying  to  arrive,  and  regarded  their 
sunk  capital  as  investment  which  would  eventually 
bring  its  due  return.  But  when  one  looks  back  on  those 
years,  the  firms  in  question  stand  out  as  exceptions  to 
the  general  run  of  people,  who  regarded  aeronautics 
as  something  extremely  scientific,  exceedingly  dangerous, 
and  very  expensive.  The  very  fame  that  was  attained 
by  such  pilots  as  became  casualties  conduced  to  the 
advertisement  of  every  death,  and  the  dangers  attendant 
on  the  use  of  heavier-than-air  machines  became  greatly 
exaggerated;  considering  the  matter  as  one  of  number 
of  miles  flown,  even  in  the  early  days,  flying  exacted  no 
more  toll  in  human  life  than  did  railways  or  road  motors 
in  the  early  stages  of  their  development.  But  to  take 
one  instance,  when  C.  S.  Rolls  was  killed  at  Bourne- 
mouth by  reason  of  a  faulty  tail-plane,  the  fact  was 
shouted  to  the  whole  world  with  almost  as  much 
vehemence  as  characterised  the  announcement  of  the 
Titanic  sinking  in  mid-Atlantic. 

Even  in  1911  the  deadlock  was  apparent;  meetings 
were  falling  off  in  attendance,  and  consequently  in 
financial  benefit  to  the  promoters;  there  remained, 
however,  the  knowledge — for  it  was  proved  past  question 
— that  the  aeroplane  in  its  then  stage  of  development 
was  a  necessity  to  every  army  of  the  world.  France  had 
shown  this  by  the  more  than  interest  taken  by  the  French 
Government  in  what  had  developed  into  an  Air  Section 
of  the  French  army;  Germany,  of  course,  was  hypnotised 
by  Count  Zeppelin  and  his  dirigibles,  to  say  nothing  of 
the  Parsevals  which  had  been  proved  useful  military 


A   SUMMARY— TO    1914 

accessories;  in  spite  of  this,  it  was  realised  in  Germany 
that  the  aeroplane  also  had  its  place  in  military  affairs. 
England  came  into  the  field  with  the  military  aeroplane 
trials  of  August  ist  to  I5th,  1912,  barely  two  months 
after  the  founding  of  the  Royal  Flying  Corps. 

When  the  R.F.C.  was  founded — and  in  fact  up  to 
two  years  after  its  founding — in  no  country  were  the 
full  military  potentialities  of  the  aeroplane  realised;  it 
was  regarded  as  an  accessory  to  cavalry  for  scouting 
more  than  as  an  independent  arm;  the  possibilities  of 
bombing  were  very  vaguely  considered,  and  the  fact 
that  it  might  be  possible  to  shoot  from  an  aeroplane 
was  hardly  considered  at  all.  The  conditions  of  the 
British  Military  Trials  of  1912  gave  to  the  War  Office 
the  option  of  purchasing  for  £1,000  any  machine  that 
might  be  awarded  a  prize.  Machines  were  required, 
among  other  things,  to  carry  a  useful  load  of  350  Ibs. 
in  addition  to  equipment,  with  fuel  and  oil  for  4^  hours; 
thus  loaded,  they  were  required  to  fly  for  3  hours, 
attaining  an  altitude  of  4,500  feet,  maintaining  a  height 
of  1,500  feet  for  i  hour,  and  climbing  1,000  feet  from 
the  ground  at  a  rate  of  200  feet  per  minute,  '  although 
300  feet  per  minute  is  desirable/  They  had  to  attain 
a  speed  of  not  less  than  55  miles  per  hour  in  a  calm, 
and  be  able  to  plane  down  to  the  ground  in  a  calm  from 
not  more  than  1,000  feet  with  engine  stopped,  traversing 
6,000  feet  horizontal  distance.  For  those  days,  the 
landing  demands  were  rather  exacting;  the  machine 
should  be  able  to  rise  without  damage  from  long  grass, 
clover,  or  harrowed  land,  in  100  yards  in  a  calm,  and 
should  be  able  to  land  without  damage  on  any  cultivated 
ground,  including  rough  ploughed  land,  and,  when 
landing  on  smooth  turf  in  a  calm,  be  able  to  pull  up 

235 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

within  75  yards  of  the  point  of  first  touching  the  ground. 
It  was  required  that  pilot  and  observer  should  have  as 
open  a  view  as  possible  to  front  and  flanks,  and  they 
should  be  so  shielded  from  the  wind  as  to  be  able  to 
communicate  with  each  other.  These  are  the  main 
provisions  out  of  the  set  of  conditions  laid  down  for 
competitors,  but  a  considerable  amount  of  leniency 
was  shown  by  the  authorities  in  the  competition,  who 
obviously  wished  to  try  out  every  machine  entered  and 
see  what  were  its  capabilities. 

The  beginning  of  the  competition  consisted  in 
assembling  the  machines  against  time  from  road  trim 
to  flying  trim.  Cody's  machine,  which  was  the  only 
one  to  be  delivered  by  air,  took  i  hour  and  35  minutes 
to  assemble;  the  best  assembling  time  was  that  of  the 
Avro,  which  was  got  into  flying  trim  in  14  minutes  30 
seconds.  This  machine  came  to  grief  with  Lieut.  Parke 
as  pilot,  on  the  yth,  through  landing  at  very  high  speed 
on  very  bad  ground;  a  securing  wire  of  the  under- 
carriage broke  in  the  landing,  throwing  the  machine 
forward  on  to  its  nose  and  then  over  on  its  back.  Parke 
was  uninjured,  fortunately;  the  damaged  machine  was 
sent  off  to  Manchester  for  repair  and  was  back  again 
on  the  1 6th  of  August. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  by  this  time  the  Royal  Aircraft 
Factory  was  building  aeroplanes  of  the  B.E.  and  F.E. 
types,  but  at  the  same  time  it  is  also  to  be  noted  that 
British  military  interest  in  engines  was  not  sufficient  to 
bring  them  up  to  the  high  level  attained  by  the  planes, 
and  it  is  notorious  that  even  the  outbreak  of  war  found 
England  incapable  of  providing  a  really  satisfactory 
aero  engine.  In  the  1912  Trials,  the  only  machines 
which  actually  completed  all  their  tests  were  the  Cody 

236 


A  SUMMARY— TO   1914 

biplane,  the  French  Deperdussin,  the  Hanriot,  two 
Bleriots  and  a  Maurice  Farman.  The  first  prize  of 
£4,000,  open  to  all  the  world,  went  to  F.  S.  Cody's 
British-built  biplane,  which  complied  with  all  the 
conditions  of  the  competition  and  well  earned  its  official 
acknowledgment  of  supremacy.  The  machine  climbed 
at  280  feet  per  minute  and  reached  a  height  of  5,000 
feet,  while  in  the  landing  test,  in  spite  of  its  great  weight 
and  bulk,  it  pulled  up  on  grass  in  56  yards.  The  total 
weight  was  2,690  Ibs.  when  fully  loaded,  and  the  total 
area  of  supporting  surface  was  500  square  feet;  the 
motive  power  was  supplied  by  a  six-cylinder  120  horse- 
power Austro-Daimler  engine.  The  second  prize  was 
taken  by  A.  Deperdussin  for  the  French-built  Deper- 
dussin monoplane.  Cody  carried  off  the  only  prize 
awarded  for  a  British-built  plane,  this  being  the  sum  of 
£1,000,  and  consolation  prizes  of  £$oo  each  were 
awarded  to  the  British  Deperdussin  Company  and 
The  British  and  Colonial  Aeroplane  Company,  this 
latter  soon  to  become  famous  as  makers  of  the  Bristol 
aeroplane,  of  which  the  war  honours  are  still  fresh  in 
men's  minds. 

While  these  trials  were  in  progress  Audemars 
accomplished  the  first  flight  between  Paris  and  Berlin, 
setting  out  from  Issy  early  in  the  morning  of  August 
1 8th,  landing  at  Rheims  to  refill  his  tanks  within  an 
hour  and  a  half,  and  then  coming  into  bad  weather 
which  forced  him  to  land  successively  at  Mezieres, 
Laroche,  Bochum,  and  finally  nearly  Gersenkirchen, 
where,  owing  to  a  leaky  petrol  tank,  the  attempt  to  win 
the  prize  offered  for  the  first  flight  between  the  two 
capitals  had  to  be  abandoned  after  300  miles  had  been 
covered,  as  the  time  limit  was  definitely  exceeded. 

237 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

Audemars  determined  to  get  through  to  Berlin,  and  set 
off  at  5  in  the  morning  of  the  1 9th,  only  to  be  brought 
down  by  fog;  starting  off  again  at  9.15  he  landed  at 
Hanover,  was  off  again  at  1.35,  and  reached  the 
Johannisthal  aerodrome  in  the  suburbs  of  Berlin  at 
6.48  that  evening. 

As  early  as  1910  the  British  Government  possessed 
some  ten  aeroplanes,  and  in  1911  the  force  developed 
into  the  Army  Air  Battalion,  with  the  aeroplanes  under 
the  control  of  Major  J.  H.  Fulton,  R.F.A.  Toward 
the  end  of  1911  the  Air  Battalion  was  handed  over  to 
(then)  Brig.-Gen.  D.  Henderson,  Director  of  Military 
Training.  On  June  6th,  1912,  the  Royal  Flying  Corps 
was  established  with  a  military  wing  under  Major  F.  H. 
Sykes  and  a  naval  wing  under  Commander  C.  R.  Samson. 
A  joint  Naval  and  Military  Flying  School  was  established 
at  Upavon  with  Captain  Godfrey  M.  Paine,  R.N.,  as 
Commandant  and  Major  Hugh  Trenchard  as  Assistant 
Commandant.  The  Royal  Aircraft  Factory  brought 
out  the  B.E.  and  F.E.  types  of  biplane,  admittedly 
superior  to  any  other  British  design  of  the  period,  and 
an  Aircraft  Inspection  Department  was  formed  under 
Major  J.  H.  Fulton.  The  military  wing  of  the  R.F.C. 
was  equipped  almost  entirely  with  machines  of  Royal 
Aircraft  Factory  design,  but  the  Navy  preferred  to 
develop  British  private  enterprise  by  buying  machines 
from  private  firms.  On  July  ist,  1914,  the  establishment 
of  the  Royal  Naval  Air  Service  marked  the  definite 
separation  of  the  military  and  naval  sides  of  British 
aviation,  but  the  Central  Flying  School  at  Upavon 
continued  to  train  pilots  for  both  services. 

It  is  difficult  at  this  length  of  time,  so  far  as  the 
military  wing  was  concerned,  to  do  full  justice  to  the 

238 


A  SUMMARY— TO    1914 

spade  work  done  by  Major-General  Sir  David  Henderson 
in  the  early  days.  Just  before  war  broke  out,  British 
military  air  strength  consisted  officially  of  eight  squadrons, 
each  of  1 2  machines  and  1 3  in  reserve,  with  the  necessary 
complement  of  road  transport.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
there  were  three  complete  squadrons  and  a  part  of  a 
fourth  which  constituted  the  force  sent  to  France  at  the 
outbreak  of  war.  The  value  of  General  Henderson's 
work  lies  in  the  fact  that,  in  spite  of  official  stinginess 
and  meagre  supplies  of  every  kind,  he  built  up  a  skeleton 
organisation  so  elastic  and  so  well  thought  out  that  it 
conformed  to  war  requirements  as  well  as  even  the 
German  plans  fitted  in  with  their  aerial  needs.  On  the  4th 
of  August,  1914,  the  nominal  British  air  strength  of  the 
military  wing  was  179  machines.  Of  these,  82  machines 
proceeded  to  France,  landing  at  Amiens  and  flying  to 
Maubeuge  to  play  their  part  in  the  great  retreat  with 
the  British  Expeditionary  Force,  in  which  they  suffered 
heavy  casualties  both  in  personnel  and  machines.  The 
history  of  their  exploits,  however,  belongs  to  the  War 
period. 

The  development  of  the  aeroplane  between  1912 
and  1914  can  be  judged  by  comparison  of  the  require- 
ments of  the  British  War  Office  in  1912  with  those 
laid  down  in  an  official  memorandum  issued  by  the 
War  Office  in  February,  1914.  This  latter  called 
for  a  light  scout  aeroplane,  a  single-seater,  with  %  fuel 
capacity  to  admit  of  300  miles  range  and  a  speed  range 
of  from  50  to  85  miles  per  hour.  It  had  to  be  able  to 
climb  3,500  feet  in  five  minutes,  and  the  engine  had  to 
be  so  constructed  that  the  pilot  could  start  it  without 
assistance.  At  the  same  time,  a  heavier  type  of  machine 
for  reconnaissance  work  was  called  for,  carrying  fuel 

239 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

for  a  200  mile  flight  with  a  speed  range  of  between  35 
and  60  miles  per  hour,  carrying  both  pilot  and  observer. 
It  was  to  be  equipped  with  a  wireless  telegraphy  set, 
and  be  capable  of  landing  over  a  30  foot  vertical  obstacle 
and  coming  to  rest  within  a  hundred  yards'  distance  from 
the  obstacle  in  a  wind  of  not  more  than  15  miles  per 
hour.  A  third  requirement  was  a  heavy  type  of  fighting 
aeroplane  accommodating  pilot  and  gunner  with  machine 
gun  and  ammunition,  having  a  speed  range  of  between 
45  and  75  miles  per  hour  and  capable  of  climbing  3,500 
feet  in  8  minutes.  It  was  required  to  carry  fuel  for  a 
300  mile  flight  and  to  give  the  gunner  a  clear  field  of 
fire  in  every  direction  up  to  30  degrees  on  each  side  of 
the  line  of  flight.  Comparison  of  these  specifications 
with  those  of  the  1912  trials  will  show  that  although 
fighting,  scouting,  and  reconnaissance  types  had  been 
defined,  the  development  of  performance  compared 
with  the  marvellous  development  of  the  earlier  years  of 
achieved  flight  was  small. 

Yet  the  records  of  those  years  show  that  here  and 
there  an  outstanding  design  was  capable  of  great 
things.  On  the  9th  September,  1912,  Vedrines,  flying 
a  Deperdussin  monoplane  at  Chicago,  attained  a  speed 
of  105  miles  an  hour.  On  August  I2th  G.  de  Havilland 
took  a  passenger  to  a  height  of  10,560  feet  over  Salisbury 
Plain,  flying  a  B.E.  biplane  with  a  70  horse-power 
Renault  engine.  The  work  of  de  Havilland  may  be 
said  to  have  been  the  principal  influence  in  British 
military  aeroplane  design,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that 
his  genius  was  in  great  measure  responsible  for  the 
excellence  of  the  early  B.E.  and  F.E.  types. 

On  the  3ist  May,  1913,  H.  G.  Hawker,  flying  at 
Brooklands,  reached  a  height  of  1 1,450  feet  on  a  Sopwith 

240 


A  SUMMARY— TO   1914 

biplane  engined  with  an  80  horse-power  Gnome  engine. 
On  June  i6th,  with  the  same  type  of  machine  and 
engine,  he  achieved  12,900  feet.  On  the  2nd  October, 
in  the  same  year,  a  Grahame  White  biplane  with  120 
horse-power  Austro-Daimler  engine,  piloted  by  Louis 
Noel,  made  a  flight  of  just  under  20  minutes  carrying 
9  passengers.  In  France  a  Nieuport  monoplane  piloted 
by  G.  Legagneaux  attained  a  height  of  6,120  metres, 
or  just  over  20,070  feet,  this  being  the  world's  height 
record.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  of  the  world's  aviation 
records  as  passed  by  the  International  Aeronautical 
Federation  up  to  June  3oth,  1914,  only  one,  that  of 
Noel,  is  credited  to  Great  Britain. 

Just  as  records  were  made  abroad,  with  one  exception, 
so  were  the  really  efficient  engines.  In  England  there 
was  the  Green  engine,  but  the  outbreak  of  war  found 
the  Royal  Flying  Corps  with  80  horse-power  Gnomes, 
70  horse-power  Renaults,  and  one  or  two  Antoinette 
motors,  but  not  one  British,  while  the  Royal  Naval  Air 
Service  had  got  20  machines  with  engines  of  similar 
origin,  mainly  land  planes  in  which  the  wheeled  under- 
carriages had  been  replaced  by  floats.  France  led  in 
development,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  at  the  outbreak 
of  war,  the  French  military  aeroplane  service  was  the 
best  in  the  world.  It  was  mainly  composed  of  Maurice 
Farman  two-seater  biplanes  and  Bleriot  monoplanes — 
the  latter  type  banned  for  a  period  on  account  of  a 
number  of  serious  accidents  that  took  place  in  1912. 

America  had  its  Army  Aviation  School,  and  employed 
Burgess-Wright  and  Curtiss  machines  for  the  most 
part.  In  the  pre-war  years,  once  the  Wright  Brothers 
had  accomplished  their  task,  America's  chief  accomplish- 
ment consisted  in  the  development  of  the  *  Flying 

241 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

Boat,'  alternatively  named  with  characteristic  American 
clumsiness,  *  The  Hydro-Aeroplane/  In  February 
of  1911,  Glenn  Curtiss  attached  a  float  to  a  machine 
similar  to  that  with  which  he  won  the  first  Gordon- 
Bennett  Air  Contest  and  made  his  first  flying  boat 
experiment.  From  this  beginning  he  developed  the 
boat  form  of  body  which  obviated  the  use  and  troubles 
of  floats — his  hydroplane  became  its  own  float. 

Mainly  owing  to  greater  engine  reliability  the 
duration  records  steadily  increased.  By  September  of 
1912  Fourny,  on  a  Maurice  Farman  biplane,  was  able 
to  accomplish  a  distance  of  628  miles  without  a  landing, 
remaining  in  the  air  for  13  hours  17  minutes  and  just 
over  57  seconds.  By  1914  this  was  raised  by  the 
German  aviator,  Landemann,  to  21  hours  48!  seconds. 
The  nature  of  this  last  record  shows  that  the  factors 
in  such  a  record  had  become  mere  engine  endurance, 
fuel  capacity,  and  capacity  of  the  pilot  to  withstand 
air  conditions  for  a  prolonged  period,  rather  than  any 
exceptional  flying  skill. 

Let  these  years  be  judged  by  the  records  they 
produced,  and  even  then  they  are  rather  dull.  The 
glory  of  achievement  such  as  characterised  the  work 
of  the  Wright  Brothers,  of  Bleriot,  and  of  the  giants  of 
the  early  days,  had  passed;  the  splendid  courage,  the 
patriotism  and  devotion  of  the  pilots  of  the  War  period 
had  not  yet  come  to  being.  There  was  progress,  past 
question,  but  it  was  mechanical,  hardly  ever  inspired. 
The  study  of  climatic  conditions  was  definitely  begun 
and  aeronautical  metereology  came  to  being,  while 
another  development  already  noted  was  the  fitting  of 
wireless  telegraphy  to  heavier-than-air  machines,  as 
instanced  in  the  British  War  Office  specification  of 

242 


CJ 


w 

CD 


•o 
c 

03 


A   SUMMARY— TO    1914 

February,  1914.  These,  however,  were  inevitable; 
it  remained  for  the  War  to  force  development  beyond 
the  inevitable,  producing  in  five  years  that  which  under 
normal  circumstances  might  easily  have  occupied  fifty 
— the  aeroplane  of  to-day;  for,  as  already  remarked, 
there  was  a  deadlock,  and  any  survey  that  may  be  made 
of  the  years  1912-1914,  no  matter  how  superficial, 
must  take  it  into  account  with  a  view  to  retaining  correct 
perspective  in  regard  to  the  development  of  the  aeroplane. 
There  is  one  story  of  1914  that  must  be  included, 
however  briefly,  in  any  record  of  aeronautical  achieve- 
ment, since  it  demonstrates  past  question  that  to 
Professor  Langley  really  belongs  the  honour  of  having 
achieved  a  design  which  would  ensure  actual  flight, 
although  the  series  of  accidents  which  attended  his 
experiments  gave  to  the  Wright  Brothers  the  honour 
-)f  first  leaving  the  earth  and  descending  without  accident 
in  a  power-driven  heavier-than-air  machine.  In  March, 
1914,  Glenn  Curtiss  was  invited  to  send  a  flying  boat 
to  Washington  for  the  celebration  of  '  Langley  Day,' 
when  he  remarked,  *  I  would  like  to  put  the  Langley 
aeroplane  itself  in  the  air.'  In  consequence  of  this 
remark,  Secretary  Walcot  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution 
authorised  Curtiss  to  re-canvas  the  original  Langley 
aeroplane  and  launch  it  either  under  its  own  power  or 
with  a  more  recent  engine  and  propeller.  Curtiss 
completed  this,  and  had  the  machine  ready  on  the 
shores  of  Lake  Keuka,  Hammondsport,  N.Y.,  by  May. 
The  main  object  of  these  renewed  trials  was  to  show 
whether  the  original  Langley  machine  was  capable  of 
sustained  free  flight  with  a  pilot,  and  a  secondary  object 
was  to  determine  more  fully  the  advantages  of  the 
tandem  monoplane  type;  thus  the  aeroplane  was  first 

243 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

flown  as  nearly  as  possible  in  its  original  condition,  and 
then  with  such  modifications  as  seemed  desirable. 
The  only  difference  made  for  the  first  trials  consisted 
in  fitting  floats  with  connecting  trusses;  the  steel  main 
frame,  wings,  rudders,  engine,  and  propellers  were 
substantially  as  they  had  been  in  1903.  The  pilot  had 
the  same  seat  under  the  main  frame  and  the  same  general 
system  of  control.  He  could  raise  or  lower  the  craft 
by  moving  the  rear  rudder  up  and  down;  he  could 
steer  right  or  left  by  moving  the  vertical  rudder.  He 
had  no  ailerons  nor  wing-warping  mechanism,  but  for 
lateral  balance  depended  on  the  dihedral  angle  of  the 
wings  and  upon  suitable  movements  of  his  weight  or  of 
the  vertical  rudder. 

After  the  adjustments  for  actual  flight  had  been 
made  in  the  Curtiss  factory,  according  to  the  minute 
descriptions  contained  in  the  Langley  Memoir  on 
Mechanical  Flight,  the  aeroplane  was  taken  to  the 
shore  of  Lake  Keuka,  beside  the  Curtiss  hangars,  and 
assembled  for  launching.  On  a  clear  morning  (May 
28th)  and  in  a  mild  breeze,  the  craft  was  lifted  on  to 
the  water  by  a  dozen  men  and  set  going,  with  Mr 
Curtiss  at  the  steering  wheel,  esconced  in  the  little  boat- 
shaped  car  under  the  forward  part  of  the  frame.  The 
four- winged  craft,  pointed  somewhat  across  the  wind, 
went  skimming  over  the  wavelets,  then  automatically 
headed  into  the  wind,  rose  in  level  poise,  soared  grace- 
fully for  150  feet,  and  landed  softly  on  the  water  near 
the  shore.  Mr  Curtiss  asserted  that  he  could  have 
flown  farther,  but,  being  unused  to  the  machine, 
imagined  that  the  left  wings  had  more  resistance  than 
the  right.  The  truth  is  that  the  aeroplane  was  perfectly 
balanced  in  wing  resistance,  but  turned  on  the  water 

244 


A  SUMMARY— TO    1914 

like  a  weather  vane,  owing  to  the  lateral  pressure  on 
its  big  rear  rudder.  Hence  in  future  experiments  this 
rudder  was  made  turnable  about  a  vertical  axis,  as  well 
as  about  the  horizontal  axis  used  by  Langley.  Hence- 
forth the  little  vertical  rudder  under  the  frame  was  kept 
fixed  and  inactive.1 

That  the  Langley  aeroplane  was  subsequently  fitted 
with  an  80  horse-power  Curtiss  engine  and  successfully 
flown  is  of  little  interest  in  such  a  record  as  this,  except 
for  the  fact  that  with  the  weight  nearly  doubled  by  the 
new  engine  and  accessories  the  machine  flew  successfully, 
and  demonstrated  the  perfection  of  Langley's  design 
by  standing  the  strain.  The  point  that  is  of  most 
importance  is  that  the  design  itself  proved  a  success 
and  fully  vindicated  Langley's  work.  At  the  same 
time,  it  would  be  unjust  to  pass  by  the  fact  of  the  flight 
without  according  to  Curtiss  due  recognition  of  the 
way  in  which  he  paid  tribute  to  the  genius  of  the  pioneer 
by  these  experiments. 

*  Smithsonian  Publications  No.  2329. 


24* 


XIX 


THE  WAR  PERIOD- 


FULL  record  of  aeronautical  progress  and  of  the  accom- 
plishments of  pilots  in  the  years  of  the  War  would  demand 
not  merely  a  volume,  but  a  complete  library,  and  even 
then  it  would  be  barely  possible  to  pay  full  tribute  to  the 
heroism  of  pilots  of  the  war  period.  There  are  names 
connected  with  that  period  of  which  the  glory  will  not 
fade,  names  such  as  Bishop,  Guynemer,  Boelcke,  Ball, 
Fonck,  Immelmann,  and  many  others  that  spring  to 
mind  as  one  recalls  the  *  Aces  *  of  the  period.  In 
addition  to  the  pilots,  there  is  the  stupendous  develop- 
ment of  the  machines — stupendous  when  the  length  of 
the  period  in  which  it  was  achieved  is  considered. 

The  fact  that  Germany  was  best  prepared  in  the 
matter  of  heavier-than-air  service  machines  in  spite  of 
the  German  faith  in  the  dirigible  is  one  more  item  of 
evidence  as  to  who  forced  hostilities.  The  Germans 
came  into  the  field  with  well  over  600  aeroplanes,  mainly 
two-seaters  of  standardised  design,  and  with  factories 
back  in  the  Fatherland  turning  out  sufficient  new 
machines  to  make  good  the  losses.  There  were  a  few 
single-seater  scouts  built  for  speed,  and  the  two-seater 
machines  were  all  fitted  with  cameras  and  bomb- 
dropping  gear.  Manoeuvres  had  determined  in  the 
German  mind  what  should  be  the  uses  of  the  air  fleet; 
there  was  photography  of  fortifications  and  field  works ; 

246 


THE  WAR  PERIOD— I 

signalling  by  Very  lights;  spotting  for  the  guns, 
and  scouting  for  news  of  enemy  movements.  The 
methodical  German  mind  had  arranged  all  this  before- 
hand, but  had  not  allowed  for  the  fact  that  opponents 
might  take  counter-measures  which  would  upset  the 
over-perfect  mechanism  of  the  air  service  just  as 
effectually  as  the  great  march  on  Paris  was  countered 
by  the  genius  of  Joffre. 

The  French  Air  Force  at  the  beginning  of  the  War 
consisted  of  upwards  of  600  machines.  These,  unlike 
the  Germans,  were  not  standardised,  but  were  of  many 
and  diverse  types.  In  order  to  get  replacements  quickly 
enough,  the  factories  had  to  work  on  the  designs  they 
had,  and  thus  for  a  long  time  after  the  outbreak  of 
hostilities  standardisation  was  an  impossibility.  The 
versatility  of  a  Latin  race  in  a  measure  compensated 
for  this;  from  the  outset,  the  Germans  tried  to  over- 
whelm the  French  Air  Force,  but  failed,  since  they 
had  not  the  numerical  superiority,  nor — this  equally 
a  determining  factor — the  versatility  and  resource  of 
the  French  pilots.  They  calculated  on  a  50  per  cent 
superiority  to  ensure  success;  they  needed  more  nearly 
400  per  cent,  for  the  German  fought  to  rule,  avoiding 
risks  whenever  possible,  and  definitely  instructed  to 
save  both  machines  and  pilots  wherever  possible. 
French  pilots,  on  the  other  hand,  ran  all  the  risks  there 
were,  got  news  of  German  movements,  bombed  the 
enemy,  and  rapidly  worked  up  a  very  respectable  anti- 
aircraft force  which,  whatever  it  may  have  accomplished 
in  the  way  of  hitting  German  planes,  got  on  the  German 
pilots*  nerves. 

It  has  already  been  detailed  how  Britain  sent  over 
82  planes  as  its  contribution  to  the  military  aerial  force 
H.A.  247  R 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

of  1914.  These  consisted  of  Farman,  Caudron,  and 
Short  biplanes,  together  with  Bleriot,  Deperdussin 
and  Nieuport  monoplanes,  certain  R.A.F.  types,  and 
other  machines  of  which  even  the  name  barely  survives 
— the  resourceful  Yankee  entitles  them  '  orphans/ 
It  is  on  record  that  the  work  of  providing  spares  might 
have  been  rather  complicated  but  for  the  fact  that  there 
were  none. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  Germans  had  made  study 
of  aerial  military  needs  just  as  thoroughly  as  they  had 
perfected  their  ground  organisation.  Thus  there  were 
21  illuminated  aircraft  stations  in  Germany  before  the 
War,  the  most  powerful  being  at  Weimar,  where  a 
revolving  electric  flash  of  over  27  million  candle-power 
was  located.  Practically  all  German  aeroplane  tests 
in  the  period  immediately  preceding  the  War  were  of 
a  military  nature,  and  quite  a  number  of  reliability 
tests  were  carried  out  just  on  the  other  side  of  the 
French  frontier.  Night  flying  and  landing  were 
standardised  items  in  the  German  pilot's  course  of 
instruction  while  they  were  still  experimental  in  other 
countries,  and  a  system  of  signals  was  arranged  which 
rendered  the  instructional  course  as  perfect  as  might 
be. 

The  Belgian  contribution  consisted  of  about  twenty 
machines  fit  for  active  service  and  another  twenty  which 
were  more  or  less  useful  as  training  machines.  The 
material  was  mainly  French,  and  the  Belgian  pilots 
used  it  to  good  account  until  German  numbers  swamped 
them.  France,  and  to  a  small  extent  England,  kept 
Belgian  aviators  supplied  with  machines  throughout 
the  War. 

The  Italian  Air  Fleet  was  small,  and  consisted  of 

248 


THE  WAR  PERIOD— I 

French  machines  together  with  a  percentage  of  planes  of 
Italian  origin,  of  which  the  design  was  very  much  a 
copy  of  French  types.  It  was  not  until  the  War  was 
nearing  its  end  that  the  military  and  naval  services 
relied  more  on  the  home  product  than  on  imports. 
This  does  not  apply  to  engines,  however,  for  the  F.I.A.T. 
and  S.C.A.T.  were  equal  to  practically  any  engine  of 
Allied  make,  both  in  design  and  construction. 

Russia  spent  vast  sums  in  the  provision  of  machines : 
the  giant  Sikorsky  biplane,  carrying  four  100  horse- 
power Argus  motors,  was  designed  by  a  young  Russian 
engineer  in  the  latter  part  of  1913,  and  in  its  early  trials 
it  created  a  world's  record  by  carrying  seven  passengers 
for  i  hour  54  minutes.  Sikorsky  also  designed  several 
smaller  machines,  tractor  biplanes  on  the  lines  of  the 
British  B.E.  type,  which  were  very  successful.  These 
were  the  only  home  productions,  and  the  imports 
consisted  mainly  of  French  aeroplanes  by  the  hundred, 
which  got  as  far  as  the  docks  and  railway  sidings  and 
stayed  there,  while  German  influence  and  the  corruption 
that  ruined  the  Russian  Army  helped  to  lose  the  War. 
A  few  Russian  aircraft  factories  were  got  into  operation 
as  hostilities  proceeded,  but  their  products  were  negli- 
gible, and  it  is  not  on  record  that  Russia  ever  learned 
to  manufacture  a  magneto. 

The  United  States  paid  tribute  to  British  efficiency 
by  adopting  the  British  system  of  training  for  its  pilots ; 
500  American  cadets  were  trained  at  the  School  of 
Military  Aeronautics  at  Oxford,  in  order  to  form  a 
nucleus  for  the  American  aviation  schools  which  were 
subsequently  set  up  in  the  United  States  and  in  France. 
As  regards  production  of  craft,  the  designing  of  the 
Liberty  engine  and  building  of  over  20,000  aeroplanes 

249 


A  HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

within  a  year  proves  that  America  is  a  manufacturing 
country,  even  under  the  strain  of  war. 

There  were  three  years  of  struggle  for  aerial 
supremacy,  the  combatants  being  England  and  France 
against  Germany,  and  the  contest  was  neck  and  neck 
all  the  way.  Germany  led  at  the  outset  with  the 
standardised  two-seater  biplanes  manned  by  pilots  and 
observers,  whose  training  was  superior  to  that  afforded 
by  any  other  nation,  while  the  machines  themselves 
were  better  equipped  and  fitted  with  accessories.  All 
the  early  German  aeroplanes  were  designated  Taube 
by  the  uninitiated,  and  were  formed  with  swept-back, 
curved  wings  very  much  resembling  the  wings  of  a 
bird.  These  had  obvious  disadvantages,  but  the 
standardisation  of  design  and  mass  production  of  the 
German  factories  kept  them  in  the  field  for  a  consider- 
able period,  and  they  flew  side  by  side  with  tractor 
biplanes  of  improved  design.  For  a  little  time,  the 
Fokker  monoplane  became  a  definite  threat  both  to 
French  and  British  machines.  It  was  an  improvement 
on  the  Morane  French  monoplane,  and  with  a  high- 
powered  engine  it  climbed  quickly  and  flew  fast,  doing 
a  good  deal  of  damage  for  a  brief  period  of  1915. 
Allied  design  got  ahead  of  it  and  finally  drove  it  out  of 
the  air. 

German  equipment  at  the  outset,  which  put  the 
Allies  at  a  disadvantage,  included  a  hand-operated 
magneto  engine-starter  and  a  small  independent  screw 
which,  mounted  on  one  of  the  main  planes,  drove  the 
dynamo  used  for  the  wireless  set.  Cameras  were  fitted 
on  practically  every  machine;  equipment  included 
accurate  compasses  and  pressure  petrol  gauges,  speed 
and  height  recording  instruments,  bomb-dropping 

250 


THE  WAR  PERIOD— I 

fittings  and  sectional  radiators  which  facilitated  repairs 
and  gave  maximum  engine  efficiency  in  spite  of  variations 
of  temperature.  As  counter  to  these,  the  Allied  pilots 
had  resource  amounting  to  impudence.  In  the  early 
days  they  carried  rifles  and  hand  grenades  and  automatic 
pistols.  They  loaded  their  machines  down,  often  at 
their  own  expense,  with  accessories  and  fittings  until 
their  aeroplanes  earned  their  title  of  Christmas  trees. 
They  played  with  death  in  a  way  that  shocked  the 
average  German  pilot  of  the  War's  early  stages,  declining 
to  fight  according  to  rule  and  indulging  in  the  individual 
duels  of  the  air  which  the  German  hated.  As  Sir  John 
French  put  it  in  one  of  his  reports,  they  established  a 
personal  ascendancy  over  the  enemy,  and  in  this  way 
compensated  for  their  inferior  material. 

French  diversity  of  design  fitted  in  well  with  the 
initiative  and  resource  displayed  by  the  French  pilots. 
The  big  Caudron  type  was  the  ideal  bomber  of  the 
early  days;  Farman  machines  were  excellent  for  recon- 
naissance and  artillery  spotting;  the  Bleriots  proved 
excellent  as  fighting  scouts  and  for  aerial  photography; 
the  Nieuports  made  good  fighters,  as  did  the  Spads, 
both  being  very  fast  craft,  as  were  the  Morane-Saulnier 
monoplanes,  while  the  big  Voisin  biplanes  rivalled  the 
Caudron  machines  as  bombers. 

The  day  of  the  Fokker  ended  when  the  British 
B.E.2.C.  aeroplane  came  to  France  in  good  quantities, 
and  the  F.E.  type,  together  with  the  De  Havilland 
machines,  rendered  British  aerial  superiority  a  certainty. 
Germany's  best  reply — this  was  about  1916 — was  the 
Albatross  biplane,  which  was  used  by  Captain  Baron 
von  Richthofen  for  his  famous  travelling  circus, 
manned  by  German  star  pilots  and  sent  to  various  parts 

251 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

of  the  line  to  hearten  up  German  troops  and  aviators 
after  any  specially  bad  strafe.  Then  there  were  the 
Aviatik  biplane  and  the  Halberstadt  righting  scout,  a 
cleanly  built  and  very  fast  machine  with  a  powerful 
engine  with  which  Germany  tried  to  win  back  superiority 
in  the  third  year  of  the  War,  but  Allied  design  kept 
about  three  months  ahead  of  that  of  the  enemy,  once 
the  Fokker  had  been  mastered,  and  the  race  went  on. 
Spads  and  Bristol  fighters,  Sopwith  scouts  and  F.E.'s 
played  their  part  in  the  race,  and  design  was  still 
advancing  when  peace  came. 

The  giant  twin-engined  Handley-Page  bomber  was 
tried  out,  proved  efficient,  and  justly  considered  better 
than  anything  of  its  kind  that  had  previously  taken  the 
field.  Immediately  after  the  conclusion  of  its  trials, 
a  specimen  of  the  type  was  delivered  intact  at  Lille  for 
the  Germans  to  copy,  the  innocent  pilot  responsible 
for  the  delivery  doing  some  great  disservice  to  his  own 
cause.  The  Gotha  Wagon-Fabrik  Firm  immediately 
set  to  work  and  copied  the  Handley-Page  design, 
producing  the  great  Gotha  bombing  machine  which 
was  used  in  all  the  later  raids  on  England  as  well  as 
for  night  work  over  the  Allied  lines. 

How  the  War  advanced  design  may  be  judged  by 
comparison  of  the  military  requirements  given  for  the 
British  Military  Trials  of  1912,  with  performances  of 
1916  and  1917,  when  the  speed  of  the  faster  machines 
had  increased  to  over  150  miles  an  hour  and  Allied 
machines  engaged  enemy  aircraft  at  heights  ranging 
up  to  22,000  feet.  All  pre-war  records  of  endurance, 
speed,  and  climb  went  by  the  board,  as  the  race  for 
aerial  superiority  went  on. 

Bombing  brought  to  being  a  number  of  crude 

252 


THE  WAR  PERIOD— I 

devices  in  the  first  year  of  the  War.  Allied  pilots  of  the 
very  early  days  carried  up  bombs  packed  in  a  small 
box  and  threw  them  over  by  hand,  while,  a  little  later, 
the  bombs  were  strung  like  apples  on  wings  and  under- 
carriage, so  that  the  pilot  who  did  not  get  rid  of  his 
load  before  landing  risked  an  explosion.  Then  came 
a  properly  designed  carrying  apparatus,  crude  but  fairly 
efficient,  and  with  1916  development  had  proceeded 
as  far  as  the  proper  bomb-racks  with  releasing 
gear. 

Reconnaissance  work  developed,  so  that  fighting 
machines  went  as  escort  to  observing  squadrons  and 
scouting  operations  were  undertaken  up  to  100  miles 
behind  the  enemy  lines;  out  of  this  grew  the  art  of 
camouflage,  when  ammunition  dumps  were  painted 
to  resemble  herds  of  cows,  guns  were  screened  by 
foliage  or  painted  to  merge  into  a  ground  scheme,  and 
many  other  schemes  were  devised  to  prevent  aerial 
observation.  Troops  were  moved  by  night  for  the 
most  part,  owing  to  the  keen  eyes  of  the  air  pilots  and 
the  danger  of  bombs,  though  occasionally  the  aviator 
had  his  chance.  There  is  one  story  concerning  a 
British  pilot  who,  on  returning  from  a  reconnaissance 
flight,  observed  a  German  Staff  car  on  the  road  under 
him;  he  descended  and  bombed  and  machine-gunned 
the  car  until  the  German  General  and  his  chauffeur 
abandoned  it,  took  to  their  heels,  and  ran  like  rabbits. 
Later  still,  when  Allied  air  superiority  was  assured, 
there  came  the  phase  of  machine-gunning  bodies  of 
enemy  troops  from  the  air.  Disregarding  all  anti- 
aircraft measures,  machines  would  sweep  down  and 
throw  battalions  into  panic  or  upset  the  military  traffic 
along  a  road,  demoralising  a  battery  or  a  transport 

253 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

train  and  causing  as  much  damage  through  congestion 
of  traffic  as  with  their  actual  machine-gun  fire.  Aerial 
photography,  too,  became  a  fine  art;  the  ordinary  long 
focus  cameras  were  used  at  the  outset  with  automatic 
plate  changers,  but  later  on  photographing  aeroplanes 
had  cameras  of  wide  angle  lens  type  built  into  the 
fuselage.  These  were  very  simply  operated,  one  lever 
registering  the  exposure  and  changing  the  plate.  In 
many  cases,  aerial  photographs  gave  information  which 
the  human  eye  had  missed,  and  it  is  noteworthy  that 
photographs  of  ground  showed  when  troops  had 
marched  over  it,  while  the  aerial  observer  was  quite 
unable  to  detect  the  marks  left  by  their  passing. 

Some  small  mention  must  be  made  of  seaplane 
activities,  which,  round  the  European  coasts  involved 
in  the  War,  never  ceased.  The  submarine  campaign 
found  in  the  spotting  seaplane  its  greatest  deterrent, 
and  it  is  old  news  now  how  even  the  deeply  submerged 
submarines  were  easily  picked  out  for  destruction 
from  a  height  and  the  news  wirelessed  from  seaplane 
to  destroyer,  while  in  more  than  one  place  the  seaplane 
itself  finished  the  task  by  bomb  dropping.  It  was  a 
seaplane  that  gave  Admiral  Beatty  the  news  that  the 
whole  German  Fleet  was  out  before  the  Jutland  Battle, 
news  which  led  to  a  change  of  plans  that  very  nearly 
brought  about  the  destruction  of  Germany's  naval 
power.  For  the  most  part,  the  seaplanes  of  the  War 
period  were  heavier  than  the  land  machines  and,  in  the 
opinion  of  the  land  pilots,  were  slow  and  clumsy  things 
to  fly.  This  was  inevitable,  for  their  work  demanded 
more  solid  building  and  greater  reliability.  To  put  the 
matter  into  Hibernian  phrase,  a  forced  landing  at  sea 
is  a  much  more  serious  matter  than  on  the  ground.  Thus 

254 


THE  WAR  PERIOD— I 

there  was  need  for  greater  engine  power,  bigger  wing- 
spread  to  support  the  floats,  and  fuel  tanks  of  greater 
capacity.  The  flying  boats  of  the  later  War  period 
carried  considerable  crews,  were  heavily  armed,  capable 
of  withstanding  very  heavy  weather,  and  carried  good 
loads  of  bombs  on  long  cruises.  Their  work  was  not 
all  essentially  seaplane  work,  for  the  R.N.A.S.  was  as 
well  known  as  hated  over  the  German  airship  sheds  in 
Belgium  and  along  the  Flanders  coast.  As  regards 
other  theatres  of  War,  they  rendered  valuable  service 
from  the  Dardanelles  to  the  Rufiji  River,  at  this  latter 
place  forming  a  principal  factor  in  the  destruction  of 
the  cruiser  Konigsberg.  Their  spotting  work  at  the 
Dardanelles  for  the  battleships  was  reponsible  for 
direct  hits  from  15  in.  guns  on  invisible  targets  at 
ranges  of  over  12,000  yards.  Seaplane  pilots  were 
bombing  specialists,  including  among  their  targets 
army  headquarters,  ammunition  dumps,  railway  stations, 
submarines  and  their  bases,  docks,  shipping  in  German 
harbours,  and  the  German  Fleet  at  Wilhelmshaven. 
Dunkirk,  a  British  seaplane  base,  was  a  sharp  thorn 
in  the  German  side. 

Turning  from  consideration  of  the  various  services 
to  the  exploits  of  the  men  composing  them,  it  is  difficult 
to  particularise.  A  certain  inevitable  prejudice  even 
at  this  length  of  time  leads  one  to  discount  the  valour 
of  pilots  in  the  German  Air  Service,  but  the  names  of 
Boelcke,  von  Richthofen,  and  Immelmann  recur  as 
proof  of  the  courage  that  was  not  wanting  in  the  enemy 
ranks,  while,  however  much  we  may  decry  the  Gotha 
raids  over  the  English  coast  and  on  London,  there  is 
no  doubt  that  the  men  who  undertook  these  raids  were 
not  deficient  in  the  form  of  bravery  that  is  of  more 


A  HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

value  than  the  unthinking  valour  of  a  minute  which, 
observed  from  the  right  quarter,  wins  a  military 
decoration. 

Yet  the  fact  that  the  Allied  airmen  kept  the  air  at  all 
in  the  early  days  proved  on  which  side  personal  superiority 
lay,  for  they  were  outnumbered,  out-manoeuvred,  and 
faced  by  better  material  than  any  that  they  themselves 
possessed;  yet  they  won  their  rights  or  died.  The  stories 
of  their  deeds  are  endless;  Bishop,  flying  alone  and 
meeting  seven  German  machines  and  crashing  four;  the 
battle  of  May  5th,  1915,  when  five  heroes  fought  and 
conquered  twenty-seven  German  machines,  ranging  in 
altitude,  between  12,000  and  3,000  feet,  and  continuing 
the  extraordinary  struggle  from  five  until  six  in  the 
evening.  Captain  Aizlewood,  attacking  five  enemy 
machines  with  such  reckless  speed  that  he  rammed 
one  and  still  reached  his  aerodrome  safely — these  are 
items  in  a  long  list  of  feats  of  which  the  character  can 
only  be  realised  when  it  is  fully  comprehended  that 
the  British  Air  Service  accounted  for  some  8,000  enemy 
machines  in  the  course  of  the  War.  Among  the  French 
there  was  Captain  Guynemer,  who  at  the  time  of  his 
death  had  brought  down  fifty-four  enemy  machines,  in 
addition  to  many  others  of  which  the  destruction  could 
not  be  officially  confirmed.  There  was  Fonck, 
who  brought  down  six  machines  in  one  day,  four  of 
them  within  two  minutes. 

There  are  incredible  stories,  true  as  incredible,  of 
shattered  men  carrying  on  with  their  work  in  absolute 
disregard  of  physical  injury.  Major  Brabazon  Rees, 
V.C.,  engaged  a  big  German  battleplane  in  September 
of  1915  and,  single-handed,  forced  his  enemy  out  of 
action.  Later  in  his  career,  with  a  serious  wound  in 

255 


THE  WAR  PERIOD— I 

the  thigh  from  which  blood  was  pouring,  he  kept  up 
a  fight  with  an  enemy  formation  until  he  had  not  a  round 
of  ammunition  left,  and  then  returned  to  his  aerodrome 
to  get  his  wound  dressed.  Lieutenants  Otley  and 
Dunning,  flying  in  the  Balkans,  engaged  a  couple  of 
enemy  machines  and  drove  them  off,  but  not  until 
their  petrol  tank  had  got  a  hole  in  it  and  Dunning  was 
dangerously  wounded  in  the  leg.  Otley  improvised 
a  tourniquet,  passed  it  to  Dunning,  and,  when  the 
latter  had  bandaged  himself,  changed  from  the  observer's 
to  the  pilot's  seat,  plugged  the  bullet  hole  in  the  tank 
with  his  thumb  and  steered  the  machine  home. 

These  are  incidents;  the  full  list  has  not  been,  and 
can  never  be  recorded,  but  it  goes  to  show  that  in  the 
pilot  of  the  War  period  there  came  to  being  a  new  type 
of  humanity,  a  product  of  evolution  which  fitted  a 
certain  need.  Of  such  was  Captain  W  est,  who,  engaging 
hostile  troops,  was  attacked  by  seven  machines.  Early 
in  the  engagement,  one  of  his  legs  was  partially  severed 
by  an  explosive  bullet  and  fell  powerless  into  the  controls, 
rendering  the  machine  for  the  time  unmanageable. 
Lifting  his  disabled  leg,  he  regained  control  of  the 
machine,  and  although  wounded  in  the  other  leg,  he 
manoeuvred  his  machine  so  skilfully  that  his  observer 
was  able  to  get  several  good  bursts  into  the  enemy 
machines,  driving  them  away.  Then,  desperately 
wounded  as  he  was,  Captain  West  brought  the  machine 
over  to  his  own  lines  and  landed  safely.  He  fainted 
from  loss  of  blood  and  exhaustion,  but  on  regaining 
consciousness,  insisted  on  writing  his  report.  Equal 
to  this  was  the  exploit  of  Captain  Barker,  who,  in  aerial 
combat,  was  wounded  in  the  right  and  left  thigh  and 
had  his  left  arm  shattered,  subsequently  bringing 

257 


A  HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

down  an  enemy  machine  in  flames,  and  then  breaking 
through  another  hostile  formation  and  reaching  the 
British  lines. 

In  recalling  such  exploits  as  these,  one  is  tempted 
on  and  on,  for  it  seems  that  the  pilots  rivalled  each 
other  in  their  devotion  to  duty,  this  not  confined  to 
British  aviators,  but  common  practically  to  all  services. 
Sufficient  instances  have  been  given  to  show  the 
nature  of  the  work  and  the  character  of  the  men  who 
did  it. 

The  rapid  growth  of  aerial  effort  rendered  it 
necessary  in  January  of  1915  to  organise  the  Royal 
Flying  Corps  into  separate  wings,  and  in  October  of 
the  same  year  it  was  constituted  in  Brigades.  In  1916 
the  Air  Board  was  formed,  mainly  with  the  object  of 
co-ordinating  effort  and  ensuring  both  to  the  R.N.A.S. 
and  to  the  R.F.C.  adequate  supplies  of  material  as  far 
as  construction  admitted.  Under  the  presidency  of 
Lord  Cowdray,  the  Air  Board  brought  about  certain 
reforms  early  in  1917,  and  in  November  of  that  year 
a  separate  Air  Ministry  was  constituted,  separating  the 
Air  Force  from  both  Navy  and  Army,  and  rendering  it 
an  independent  force.  On  April  ist,  1918,  the  Royal 
Air  Force  came  into  existence,  and  unkind  critics  in 
the  Royal  Flying  Corps  remarked  on  the  appropriate- 
ness of  the  date.  At  the  end  of  the  War,  the  personnel 
of  the  Royal  Air  Force  amounted  to  27,906  officers, 
and  263,842  other  ranks.  Contrast  of  these  figures 
with  the  number  of  officers  and  men  who  took  the 
field  in  1914  is  indicative  of  the  magnitude  of  British 
aerial  effort  in  the  War  period. 


258 


XX 

THE    WAR    PERIOD II 

THERE  was  when  War  broke  out  no  realisation  on 
the  part  of  the  British  Government  of  the  need  for 
encouraging  the  enterprise  of  private  builders,  who 
carried  out  their  work  entirely  at  their  own  cost.  The 
importance  of  a  supply  of  British-built  engines  was 
realised  before  the  War,  it  is  true,  and  a  competition 
was  held  in  which  a  prize  of  £5,000  was  offered  for  the 
best  British  engine,  but  this  awakening  was  so  late 
that  the  R.F.C.  took  the  field  without  a  single  British 
power  plant.  Although  Germany  woke  up  equally 
late  to  the  need  for  home  produced  aeroplane  engines, 
the  experience  gained  in  building  engines  for  dirigibles 
sufficed  for  the  production  of  aeroplane  power  plants. 
The  Mercedes  filled  all  requirements  together  with 
the  Benz  and  the  Maybach.  There  was  a  225  horse- 
power Benz  which  was  very  popular,  as  were  the  100 
horse-power  and  170  horse-power  Mercedes,  the  last 
mentioned  fitted  to  the  Aviatik  biplane  of  1917.  The 
Uberursel  was  a  copy  of  the  Gnome  and  supplied  the 
need  for  rotary  engines. 

In  Great  Britain  there  were  a  number  of  aeroplane 
constructing  firms  that  had  managed  to  emerge  from 
the  lean  years  1912-1913  with  sufficient  manufacturing 
plant  to  give  a  hand  in  making  up  the  leeway  of  con- 
struction when  War  broke  out.  Gradually  the 

259 


A   HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

motor-car  firms  came  in,  turning  their  body-building  depart- 
ments to  plane  and  fuselage  construction,  which  enabled 
them  to  turn  out  the  complete  planes  engined  and 
ready  for  the  field.  The  coach-building  trade  soon 
joined  in  and  came  in  handy  as  propeller  makers;  big 
upholstering  and  furniture  firms  and  scores  of  concerns 
that  had  never  dreamed  of  engaging  in  aeroplane 
construction  were  busy  on  supplying  the  R.F.C.  By 
1915  hundreds  of  different  firms  were  building  aero- 
planes and  parts;  by  1917  the  number  had  increased 
to  over  1,000,  and  a  capital  of  over  a  million  pounds 
for  a  firm  that  at  the  outbreak  of  War  had  employed 
a  score  or  so  of  hands  was  by  no  means  uncommon. 
Women  and  girls  came  into  the  work,  more  especially 
in  plane  construction  and  covering  and  doping,  though 
they  took  their  place  in  the  engine  shops  and  proved 
successful  at  acetylene  welding  and  work  at  the  lathes. 
It  was  some  time  before  Britain  was  able  to  provide  its 
own  magnetos,  for  this  key  industry  had  been  left  in 
the  hands  of  the  Germans  up  to  the  outbreak  of  War, 
and  the  '  Bosch  '  was  admittedly  supreme — even  now 
it  has  never  been  beaten,  and  can  only  be  equalled, 
being  as  near  perfection  as  is  possible  for  a  magneto. 

One  of  the  great  inventions  of  the  War  was  the 
synchronisation  of  engine-timing  and  machine  gun, 
which  rendered  it  possible  to  fire  through  the  blades 
of  a  propeller  without  damaging  them,  though  the 
growing  efficiency  of  the  aeroplane  as  a  whole  and  of 
its  armament  is  a  thing  to  marvel  at  on  looking  back 
and  considering  what  was  actually  accomplished.  As 
the  efficiency  of  the  aeroplane  increased,  so  anti-aircraft 
guns  and  range-finding  were  improved.  Before  the  War 
an  aeroplane  travelling  at  full  speed  was  reckoned 

260 


THE  WAR  PERIOD— II 

perfectly  safe  at  4,000  feet,  but,  by  the  first  month  of 
1915,  the  safe  height  had  gone  up  to  9,000  feet,  7,000 
feet  being  the  limit  of  rifle  and  machine  gun  bullet 
trajectory;  the  heavier  guns  were  not  sufficiently  mobile 
to  tackle  aircraft.  At  that  time,  it  was  reckoned  that 
effective  aerial  photography  ceased  at  6,000  feet,  while 
bomb-dropping  from  7,000-8,000  feet  was  reckoned 
uncertain  except  in  the  case  of  a  very  large  target. 
The  improvement  in  anti-aircraft  devices  went  on, 
and  by  May  of  1916,  an  aeroplane  was  not  safe  under 
15,000  feet,  while  anti-aircraft  shells  had  fuses  capable 
of  being  set  to  over  20,000  feet,  and  bombing  from 
15,000  and  16,000  feet  was  common.  It  was  not  till 
later  that  Allied  pilots  demonstrated  the  safety  that 
lies  in  flying  very  near  the  ground,  this  owing  to  the 
fact  that,  when  flying  swiftly  at  a  very  low  altitude,  the 
machine  is  out  of  sight  almost  before  it  can  be  aimed  at. 

The  Battle  of  the  Somme  and  the  clearing  of  the  air 
preliminary  to  that  operation  brought  the  fighting 
aeroplane  pure  and  simple  with  them.  Formations  of 
fighting  planes  preceded  reconnaissance  craft  in  order 
to  clear  German  machines  and  observation  balloons 
out  of  the  sky  and  to  watch  and  keep  down  any  further 
enemy  formations  that  might  attempt  to  interfere  with 
Allied  observation  work.  The  German  reply  to  this 
consisted  in  the  formation  of  the  Flying  Circus,  of  which 
Captain  Baron  von  Richthofen's  was  a  good  example. 
Each  circus  consisted  of  a  large  formation  of  speedy 
machines,  built  specially  for  fighting  and  manned  by 
the  best  of  the  German  pilots.  These  were  sent  to 
attack  at  any  point  along  the  line  where  the  Allies  had 
got  a  decided  superiority. 

The  trick  flying  of  pre-war  days  soon  became  an 

261 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

everyday  matter;  Pegoud  astonished  the  aviation  world 
before  the  War  by  first  looping  the  loop,  but,  before 
three  years  of  hostilities  had  elapsed,  looping  was  part 
of  the  training  of  practically  every  pilot,  while  the 
spinning  nose  dive^  originally  considered  fatal,  was 
mastered,  and  the  tail  slide,  which  consisted  of  a  machine 
rising  nose  upward  in  the  air  and  falling  back  on  its 
tail,  became  one  of  the  easiest  '  stunts  '  in  the  pilot's 
repertoire.  Inherent  stability  was  gradually  improved, 
and,  from  1916  onward,  practically  every  pilot  could 
carry  on  with  his  machine-gun  or  camera  and  trust  to 
his  machine  to  fly  itself  until  he  was  free  to  attend  to  it. 
There  was  more  than  one  story  of  a  machine  coming 
safely  to  earth  and  making  good  landing  on  its  own 
account  with  the  pilot  dead  in  his  cock-pit. 

Toward  the  end  of  the  War,  the  Independent 
Air  Force  was  formed  as  a  branch  of  the  R.A.F. 
with  a  view  to  bombing  German  bases  and  devoting 
its  attention  exclusively  to  work  behind  the  enemy  lines. 
Bombing  operations  were  undertaken  by  the  R.N.A.S. 
as  early  as  1914-1915  against  Cuxhaven,  Dusseldorf, 
and  Friedrichshavn,  but  the  supply  of  material  was  not 
sufficient  to  render  these  raids  continuous.  A  separate 
Brigade,  the  8th,  was  formed  in  1917  to  harass  the 
German  chemical  and  iron  industries,  the  base  being 
in  the  Nancy  area,  and  this  policy  was  found  so  fruitful 
that  the  Independent  Force  was  constituted  on  the 
8th  June,  1918.  The  value  of  the  work  accomplished 
by  this  force  is  demonstrated  by  the  fact  that  the  German 
High  Command  recalled  twenty  fighting  squadrons 
from  the  Western  front  to  counter  its  activities,  and,  in 
addition,  took  troops  away  from  the  fighting  line  in 
large  numbers  for  manning  anti-aircraft  batteries  and 

262 


THE  WAR  PERIOD— II 

searchlights.  The  German  press  of  the  last  year  of  the 
War  is  eloquent  of  the  damage  done  in  manufacturing 
areas  by  the  Independent  Force,  which,  had  hostilities 
continued  a  little  longer,  would  have  included  Berlin 
in  its  activities. 

Formation  flying  was  first  developed  by  the  Germans, 
who  made  use  of  it  in  the  daylight  raids  against  England 
in  1917.  Its  value  was  very  soon  realised,  and  the  V 
formation  of  wild  geese  was  adopted,  the  leader  taking 
the  point  of  the  V  and  his  squadron  following  on  either 
side  at  different  heights.  The  air  currents  set  up  by 
the  leading  machines  were  thus  avoided  by  those  in  the 
rear,  while  each  pilot  had  a  good  view  of  the  leader's 
bombs,  and  were  able  to  correct  their  own  aim  by 
the  bursts,  while  the  different  heights  at  which  they 
flew  rendered  anti-aircraft  gun  practice  less  effective. 
Further,  machines  were  able  to  afford  mutual  protection 
to  each  other  and  any  attacker  would  be  met  by  machine- 
gun  fire  from  three  or  four  machines  firing  on  him 
from  different  angles  and  heights.  In  the  later  formations 
single-seater  fighters  flew  above  the  bombers  for  the 
purpose  of  driving  off  hostile  craft.  Formation  flying 
was  not  fully  developed  when  the  end  of  the  War 
brought  stagnation  in  place  of  the  rapid  advance  in  the 
strategy  and  tactics  of  military  air  work. 


H.A.  263 


XXI 


RECONSTRUCTION 


THE  end  of  the  War  brought  a  pause  in  which  the 
multitude  of  aircraft  constructors  found  themselves 
faced  with  the  possible  complete  stagnation  of  the 
industry,  since  military  activities  no  longer  demanded 
their  services  and  the  prospects  of  commercial  flying 
were  virtually  nil.  That  great  factor  in  commercial 
success,  cost  of  plant  and  upkeep,  had  received  no 
consideration  whatever  in  the  War  period,  for  armies 
do  not  count  cost.  The  types  of  machines  that  had 
evolved  from  the  War  were  very  fast,  very  efficient, 
and  very  expensive,  although  the  bombers  showed 
promise  of  adaptation  to  commercial  needs,  and,  so 
far  as  other  machines  were  concerned,  America  had 
already  proved  the  possibilities  of  mail-carrying  by 
maintaining  a  mail  service  even  during  the  War  period. 
A  civil  aviation  deparanent  of  the  Air  Ministry 
was  formed  in  February  of  1919  with  a  Controller 
General  of  Civil  Aviation  at  the  head.  This  was  organised 
into  four  branches,  one  dealing  with  the  survey  and 
preparation  of  air  routes  for  the  British  Empire,  one 
organising  meteorological  and  wireless  telegraphy 
services,  one  dealing  with  the  licensing  of  aerodromes, 
machines  for  passenger  or  goods  carrying  and  civilian 
pilots,  and  one  dealing  with  publicity  and  transmission 
of  information  generally.  A  special  Act  of  Parliament 

264 


RECONSTRUCTION 

entitled  *  The  Air  Navigation  Acts,  1911-1919,'  was 
passed  on  February  27th,  and  commercial  flying  was 
officially  permitted  from  May  ist,  1919. 

Meanwhile  the  great  event  of  1919,  the  crossing 
of  the  Atlantic  by  air,  was  gradually  ripening  to  per- 
formance. In  addition  to  the  rigid  airship,  R-34, 
eight  machines  entered  for  this  flight,  these  being  a 
Short  seaplane,  Handley-Page,  Martinsyde,  Vickers- 
Vimy,  and  Sopwith  aeroplanes,  and  three  American 
flying  boats,  N.C.I,  N.C.j,  and  N.C.4.  The  Short 
seaplane  was  the  only  one  of  the  eight  which  proposed 
to  make  the  journey  westward;  in  flying  from  England 
to  Ireland,  before  starting  on  the  long  trip  to  Newfound- 
land, it  fell  into  the  sea  off  the  coast  of  Anglesey,  and  so 
far  as  it  was  concerned  the  attempt  was  abandoned. 

The  first  machines  to  start  from  the  Western  end 
were  the  three  American  seaplanes,  which  on  the 
morning  of  May  6th  left  Trepassy,  Newfoundland, 
on  the  1,380  mile  stage  to  Horta  in  the  Azores.  N.C.I 
and  N.C.3  gave  up  the  attempt  very  early,  but  N.C.4, 
piloted  by  Lieut.-Commander  Read,  U.S.N.,  made 
Horta  on  May  iyth  and  made  a  three  days*  halt.  On 
the  2oth,  the  second  stage  of  the  journey  to  Ponta 
Delgada,  a  further  190  miles,  was  completed  and  a 
second  halt  of  a  week  was  made.  On  the  27th,  the 
machine  left  for  Lisbon,  900  miles  distant,  and  completed 
the  journey  in  a  day.  On  the  3oth  a  further  stage  of 
340  miles  took  N.C.4  on  to  Ferrol,  and  the  next  day 
the  last  stage  of  420  miles  to  Plymouth  was  accomplished. 

Meanwhile,  H.  G.  Hawker,  pilot  of  the  Sopwith 
biplane,  together  with  Commander  Mackenzie  Grieve, 
R.N.,  his  navigator,  found  the  weather  sufficiently 
auspicious  to  set  out  at  6.48  p.m.  on  Sunday,  May  i8th, 

265 


A  HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

in  the  hope  of  completing  the  trip  by  the  direct  route 
before  N.C.4  could  reach  Plymouth.  They  set  out 
from  Mount  Pearl  aerodrome,  St  John's,  Newfoundland, 
and  vanished  into  space,  being  given  up  as  lost,  as 
Hamel  was  lost  immediately  before  the  War  in  attempting 
to  fly  the  North  Sea.  There  was  a  week  of  dead  silence 
regarding  their  fate,  but  on  the  following  Sunday 
morning  there  was  world-wide  relief  at  the  news  that 
the  plucky  attempt  had  not  ended  in  disaster,  but  both 
aviators  had  been  picked  up  by  the  steamer  Mary  at 
9.30  a.m.  on  the  morning  of  the  I9th,  while  still  about 
750  miles  short  of  the  conclusion  of  their  journey. 
Engine  failure  brought  them  down,  and  they  planed 
down  to  the  sea  close  to  the  Mary  to  be  picked  up;  as 
the  vessel  was  not  fitted  with  wireless,  the  news  of  their 
rescue  could  not  be  communicated  until  land  was  reached. 
An  equivalent  of  half  the  £10,000  prize  offered  by  the 
Daily  Mail  for  the  non-stop  flight  was  presented  by 
the  paper  in  recognition  of  the  very  gallant  attempt,  and 
the  King  conferred  the  Air  Force  Cross  on  both  pilot 
and  navigator. 

Raynham,  pilot  of  the  Martinsyde  competing 
machine,  had  the  bad  luck  to  crash  his  craft  twice  in 
attempting  to  start  before  he  got  outside  the  boundary 
of  the  aerodrome.  The  Handley-Page  machine  was 
withdrawn  from  the  competition,  and,  attempting  to 
fly  to  America,  was  crashed  on  the  way. 

The  first  non-stop  crossing  was  made  on  June  I4th- 
i^th  in  1 6  hours  27  minutes,  the  speed  being  just  over 
117  miles  per  hour.  The  machine  was  a  Vickers-Vimy 
bomber,  engined  with  two  Rolls-Royce  Eagle  VIII's, 
piloted  by  Captain  John  Alcock,  D.S.C.,  with  Lieut. 
Arthur  Whitten-Brown  as  navigator.  The  journey 

266 


RECONSTRUCTION 

was  reported  to  be  very  rough,  so  much  so  at  times  that 
Captain  Alcock  stated  that  they  were  flying  upside 
down,  and  for  the  greater  part  of  the  time  they  were 
out  of  sight  of  the  sea.  Both  pilot  and  navigator  had 
the  honour  of  knighthood  conferred  on  them  at  the 
conclusion  of  the  journey. 

Meanwhile,  commercial  flying  opened  on  May  8th 
(the  official  date  was  May  ist)  with  a  joy-ride  service 
from  Hounslow  of  Avro  training  machines.  The 
enterprise  caught  on  remarkably,  and  the  company 
extended  their  activities  to  coastal  resorts  for  the  holiday 
season — at  Blackpool  alone  they  took  up  10,000 
passengers  before  the  service  was  two  months  old. 
Hendon,  beginning  passenger  flights  on  the  same  date, 
went  in  for  exhibition  and  passenger  flying,  and  on 
June  2 ist  the  aerial  Derby  was  won  by  Captain 
Gathergood  on  an  Airco  4R  machine  with  a  Napier  450 
horse-power  *  Lion  '  engine;  incidentally  the  speed  of 
129.3  miles  per  hour  was  officially  recognised  as 
constituting  the  world's  record  for  speed  within  a 
closed  circuit.  On  July  iyth  a  Fiat  B.R.  biplane  with 
a  700  horse-power  engine  landed  at  Kenley  aerodrome 
after  having  made  a  non-stop  flight  of  1,100  miles. 
The  maximum  speed  of  this  machine  was  160  miles 
per  hour,  and  it  was  claimed  to  be  the  fastest  machine 
in  existence.  On  August  25th  a  daily  service  between 
London  and  Paris  was  inaugurated  by  the  Aircraft 
Manufacturing  Company,  Limited,  who  ran  a  machine 
each  way  each  day,  starting  at  12.30  and  due  to  arrive 
at  2.45  p.m.  The  Handley-Page  Company  began  a 
similar  service  in  September  of  1919,  but  ran  it  on 
alternate  days  with  machines  capable  of  accommodating 
ten  passengers.  The  single  fare  in  each  case  was  fixed 

267 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

at  15  guineas  and  the  parcel  rate  at  ys.  6d.  per 
pound. 

Meanwhile,  in  Germany,  a  number  of  passenger 
services  had  been  in  operation  from  the  early  part  of 
the  year;  the  Berlin-Weimar  service  was  established 
on  February  5th  and  Berlin-Hamburg  on  March  ist, 
both  for  mail  and  passenger  carrying.  Berlin-Breslau 
was  soon  added,  but  the  first  route  opened  remained 
most  popular,  538  flights  being  made  between  its 
opening  and  the  end  of  April,  while  for  March  and 
April  combined,  the  Hamburg-Berlin  route  recorded 
only  262  flights.  All  three  routes  were  operated  by 
a  combine  of  German  aeronautical  firms  entitled  the 
Deutsche  Luft  Rederie.  The  single  fare  between 
Hamburg  and  Berlin  was  450  marks,  between  Berlin 
and  Breslau  500  marks,  and  between  Berlin  and  Weimar 
450  marks.  Luggage  was  carried  free  of  charge,  but 
varied  according  to  the  weight  of  the  passenger,  since 
the  combined  weight  of  both  passenger  and  luggage 
was  not  allowed  to  exceed  a  certain  limit. 

In  America  commercial  flying  had  begun  in  May 
of  1918  with  the  mail  service  between  Washington, 
Philadelphia,  and  New  York,  which  proved  that  mail 
carrying  is  a  commercial  possibility,  and  also  demonstrated 
the  remarkable  reliability  of  the  modern  aeroplane  by 
making  102  complete  flights  out  of  a  possible  total  of 
104  in  November,  1918,  at  a  cost  of  0.777  of  a  dollar 
per  mile.  By  March  of  1919  the  cost  per  mile  had 
gone  up  to  1.28  dollars;  the  first  annual  report  issued 
at  the  end  of  May  showed  an  efficiency  of  95.6  per  cent 
and  the  original  six  aeroplanes  and  engines  with  which 
the  service  began  were  still  in  regular  use. 

In  June  of  1919  an  American  commercial  firm 

268 


RECONSTRUCTION 

chartered  an  aeroplane  for  emergency  service  owing 
to  a  New  York  harbour  strike  and  found  it  so  useful 
that  they  made  it  a  regular  service.  The  Travellers 
Company  inaugurated  a  passenger  flying  boat  service 
between  New  York  and  Atlantic  City  on  July  25th, 
the  fare,  inclusive  of  35  Ibs.  of  luggage,  being  fixed  at 
£25  each  way. 

Five  flights  on  the  American  continent  up  to  the 
end  of  1919  are  worthy  of  note.  On  December  I3th, 
1918,  Lieut.  D.  Godoy  of  the  Chilian  army  left  Santiago, 
Chili,  crossed  the  Andes  at  a  height  of  19,700  feet  and 
landed  at  Mendoza,  the  capital  of  the  wine-growing 
province  of  Argentina.  On  April  1 9th,  1919,  Captain 
E.  F.  White  made  the  first  non-stop  flight  between 
New  York  and  Chicago  in  6  hours  50  minutes  on  a 
D.H.4  machine  driven  by  a  twelve-cylinder  Liberty 
engine.  Early  in  August  Major  Schroeder,  piloting 
a  French  Lepere  machine  flying  at  a  height  of  18,400 
feet,  reached  a  speed  of  137  miles  per  hour  with  a 
Liberty  motor  fitted  with  a  super-charger.  Toward  the 
end  of  August,  Rex  Marshall,  on  a  Thomas-Morse 
biplane,  starting  from  a  height  of  17,000  feet,  made 
a  glide  of  35  miles  with  his  engine  cut  off,  restarting 
it  when  at  a  height  of  600  feet  above  the  ground.  About 
a  month  later  R.  Rohlfe,  piloting  a  Curtiss  triplane, 
broke  the  height  record  by  reaching  34,610  feet. 


269 


XXII 


INTO  the  later  months  of  1919  comes  the  flight  by 
Captain  Ross-Smith  from  England  to  Australia  and  the 
attempt  to  make  the  Cape  to  Cairo  voyage  by  air.  The 
Australian  Government  had  offered  a  prize  of  £10,000 
for  the  first  flight  from  England  to  Australia  in  a  British 
machine,  the  flight  to  be  accomplished  in  720  con- 
secutive hours.  Ross-Smith,  with  his  brother,  Lieut. 
Keith  Macpherson  Smith,  and  two  mechanics,  left 
Hounslow  in  a  Vickers-Vimy  bomber  with  Rolls-Royce 
engine  on  November  I2th  and  arrived  at  Port  Darwin, 
North  Australia,  on  the  i  oth  December,  having  completed 
the  flight  in  27  days  20  hours  20  minutes,  thus  having  51 
hours  40  minutes  to  spare  out  of  the  720  allotted  hours. 
Early  in  1920  came  a  series  of  attempts  at  com- 
pleting the  journey  by  air  between  Cairo  and  the  Cape. 
Out  of  four  competitors  Colonel  Van  Ryneveld  came 
nearest  to  making  the  journey  successfully,  leaving 
England  on  a  standard  Vickers-Vimy  bomber  with 
Rolls-Royce  engines,  identical  in  design  with  the 
machine  used  by  Captain  Ross-Smith  on  the  England  to 
Australia  flight.  A  second  Vickers-Vimy  was  financed 
by  the  Times  newspaper  and  a  third  flight  was  under- 
taken with  a  Handley-Page  machine  under  the  auspices 
of  the  Daily  Telegraph.  The  Air  Ministry  had  already 
prepared  the  route  by  means  of  three  survey  parties 
which  cleared  the  aerodromes  and  landing  grounds, 

270 


CD 
CD 


1919-1920 

dividing  their  journey  into  stages  of  200  miles  or  less. 
Not  one  of  the  competitors  completed  the  course,  but 
in  both  this  and  Ross-Smith's  flight  valuable  data  was 
gained  in  respect  of  reliability  of  machines  and  engines, 
together  with  a  mass  of  meteorological  information. 

The  Handley-Page  Company  announced  in  the 
early  months  of  1920  that  they  had  perfected  a  new 
design  of  wing  which  brought  about  a  twenty  to  forty 
per  cent  improvement  in  lift  rate  in  the  year.  When  the 
nature  of  the  design  was  made  public,  it  was  seen  to 
consist  of  a  division  of  the  wing  into  small  sections, 
each  with  its  separate  lift.  A  few  days  later,  Fokker, 
the  Dutch  inventor,  announced  the  construction  of  a 
machine  in  which  all  external  bracing  wires  are  obviated, 
the  wings  being  of  a  very  deep  section  and  self-supporting. 
The  value  of  these  two  inventions  remains  to  be  seen 
so  far  as  commercial  flying  is  concerned. 

The  value  of  air  work  in  war,  especially  so  far  as  the 
Colonial  campaigns  in  which  British  troops  are  constantly 
being  engaged  is  in  question,  was  very  thoroughly 
demonstrated  in  a  report  issued  early  in  1920  with 
reference  to  the  successful  termination  of  the  Somaliland 
campaign  through  the  intervention  of  the  Royal  Air 
Force,  which  between  January  2ist  and  the  3ist 
practically  destroyed  the  Dervish  force  under  the 
Mullah,  which  had  been  a  thorn  in  the  side  of  Britain 
since  1907.  Bombs  and  machine-guns  did  the  work, 
destroying  fortifications  and  bringing  about  the  sur- 
render of  all  the  Mullah's  following,  with  the  exception 
of  about  seventy  who  made  their  escape. 

Certain  records  both  in  construction  and  performance 
had  characterised  the  post-war  years,  though  as  design 
advances  and  comes  nearer  to  perfection,  it  is  obvious 

271 


A  HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

that  records  must  get  fewer  and  farther  between.  The 
record  aeroplane  as  regards  size  at  the  time  of  its  con- 
struction was  the  Tarrant  triplane,  which  made  its  first 
— and  last — flight  on  May  28th,  1919.  The  total 
loaded  weight  was  30  tons,  and  the  machine  was  fitted 
with  six  400  horse-power  engines;  almost  immediately 
after  the  trial  flight  began,  the  machine  pitched  forward 
on  its  nose  and  was  wrecked,  causing  fatal  injuries  to 
Captains  Dunn  and  Rawlings,  who  were  aboard  the 
machine.  A  second  accident  of  similar  character  was 
that  which  befell  the  giant  seaplane  known  as  the 
Felixstowe  Fury,  in  a  trial  flight.  This  latter  machine 
was  intended  to  be  flown  to  Australia,  but  was  crashed 
over  the  water. 

On  May  4th,  1920,  a  British  record  for  flight 
duration  and  useful  load  was  established  by  a  commercial 
type  Handley-Page  biplane,  which,  carrying  a  load  of 
3,690  Ibs.,  rose  to  a  height  of  13,999  ^eet  an<^  remained 
in  the  air  for  I  hour  20  minutes.  On  May  27th  the 
French  pilot,  Fronval,  flying  at  Villacoublay  in  a  Morane- 
Saulnier  type  of  biplane  with  Le  Rhone  motor,  put  up 
an  extraordinary  type  of  record  by  looping  the  loop 
962  times  in  3  hours  52  minutes  10  seconds.  Another 
record  of  the  year  of  similar  nature  was  that  of  two 
French  fliers,  Boussotrot  and  Bernard,  who  achieved 
a  continuous  flight  of  24  hours  19  minutes  7  seconds, 
beating  the  pre-war  record  of  21  hours  48!  seconds  set 
up  by  the  German  pilot,  Landemann.  Both  these  records 
are  likely  to  stand,  being  in  the  nature  of  freaks,  which 
demonstrate  little  beyond  the  reliability  of  the  machine 
and  the  capacity  for  endurance  on  the  part  of  its  pilots. 

Meanwhile,  on  February  I4th,  Lieuts.  Masiero 
and  Ferrarin  left  Rome  on  S.V.A.  Ansaldo  V.  machines 

272 


fitted  with  220  horse-power  S.V.A.  motors.  On  May 
3oth  they  arrived  at  Tokio,  having  flown  by  way  of 
Bagdad,  Karachi,  Canton,  Pekin,  and  Osaka.  Several 
other  competitors  started,  two  of  whom  were  shot 
down  by  Arabs  in  Mesopotamia. 

Considered  in  a  general  way,  the  first  two  years 
after  the  termination  of  the  Great  European  War  form 
a  period  of  transition  in  which  the  commercial  type  of 
aeroplane  was  gradually  evolved  from  the  fighting 
machine  which  was  perfected  in  the  four  preceding 
years.  There  was  about  this  period  no  sense  of  finality, 
but  it  was  as  experimental,  in  its  own  way,  as  were  the 
years  of  progressing  design  which  preceded  the  war 
period.  Such  commercial  schemes  as  were  inaugurated 
call  for  no  more  note  than  has  been  given  here;  they 
have  been  experimental,  and,  with  the  possible  exception 
of  the  United  States  Government  mail  service,  have  not 
been  planned  and  executed  on  a  sufficiently  large  scale 
to  furnish  reliable  data  on  which  to  forecast  the  prospects 
of  commercial  aviation.  And  there  is  a  school  rapidly 
growing  up  which  asserts  that  the  day  of  aeroplanes  is 
nearly  over.  The  construction  of  the  giant  airships  of 
to-day  and  the  successful  return  flight  of  R34  across 
the  Atlantic  seem  to  point  to  the  eventual  triumph,  in 
spite  of  its  disadvantages,  of  the  dirigible  airship. 

This  is  a  hard  saying  for  such  of  the  aeroplane 
industry  as  survived  the  War  period  and  consolidated 
itself,  and  it  is  but  the  saying  of  a  section  which  bases 
its  belief  on  the  fact  that,  as  was  noted  in  the  very  early 
years  of  the  century,  the  aeroplane  is  primarily  a  war 
machine.  Moreover,  the  experience  of  the  War  period 
tended  to  discredit  the  dirigible,  since,  before  the 
introduction  of  helium  gas,  the  inflammability  of  its 

273 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

buoyant  factor  placed  it  at  an  immense  disadvantage  beside 
the  machine  dependent  on  the  atmosphere  itself  for  its  lift. 

As  life  runs  to-day,  it  is  a  long  time  since  Kipling 
wrote  his  story  of  the  airways  of  a  future  world  and  thrust 
out  a  prophecy  that  the  bulk  of  the  world's  air  traffic 
would  be  carried  by  gas-bag  vessels.  If  the  school 
which  inclines  to  belief  in  the  dirigible  is  right  in  its 
belief,  as  it  well  may  be,  then  the  foresight  was  uncannily 
correct,  not  only  in  the  matter  of  the  main  assumption, 
but  in  the  detail  with  which  the  writer  embroidered  it. 

On  the  constructional  side,  the  history  of  the 
aeroplane  is  still  so  much  in  the  making  that  any  attempt 
at  a  critical  history  would  be  unwise,  and  it  is  possible 
only  to  record  fact,  leaving  it  to  the  future  for  judgment 
to  be  passed.  But,  in  a  general  way,  criticism  may  be 
advanced  with  regard  to  the  place  that  aeronautics  takes 
in  civilisation.  In  the  past  hundred  years,  the  world 
has  made  miraculously  rapid  strides  materially,  but 
moral  development  has  not  kept  abreast.  Conception 
of  the  responsibilities  of  humanity  remains  virtually 
in  a  position  of  a  hundred  years  ago;  given  a  higher 
conception  of  life  and  its  responsibilities,  the  aeroplane 
becomes  the  crowning  achievement  of  that  long  series 
which  James  Watt  inaugurated,  the  last  step  in  inter- 
communication, the  chain  with  which  all  nations  are 
bound  in  a  growing  prosperity,  surely  based  on  moral 
wellbeing.  Without  such  conception  of  the  duties  as 
well  as  the  rights  of  life,  this  last  achievement  of  science 
may  yet  prove  the  weapon  that  shall  end  civilisation  as 
men  know  it  to-day,  and  bring  this  ultra-material  age 
to  a  phase  of  ruin  on  which  saner  people  can  build  a 
world  more  reasonable  and  less  given  to  groping  after 
purely  material  advancement. 

274 


II 

-I 


ifl     C 


S  2 


<D    C 


-.1 


PART  II 
1903-1920:    PROGRESS  IN  DESIGN 

BY 

LIEUT-COL.  W.  LOCKWOOD  MARSH 


THE    BEGINNINGS 

ALTHOUGH  the  first  actual  flight  of  an  aeroplane  was 
made  by  the  Wrights  on  December  lyth,  1903,  it  is 
necessary,  in  considering  the  progress  of  design  between 
that  period  and  the  present  day,  to  go  back  to  the  earlier 
days  of  their  experiments  with  *  gliders,'  which  show 
the  alterations  in  design  made  by  them  in  their  step-by- 
step  progress  to  a  flying  machine  proper,  and  give  a 
clear  idea  of  the  stage  at  which  they  had  arrived  in  the 
art  of  aeroplane  design  at  the  time  of  their  first  flights. 
They  started  by  carefully  surveying  the  work  of 
previous  experimenters,  such  as  Lilienthal  and  Chanute, 
and  from  the  lesson  of  some  of  the  failures  of  these 
pioneers  evolved  certain  new  principles  which  were 
embodied  in  their  first  glider,  built  in  1900.  In  the 
first  place,  instead  of  relying  upon  the  shifting  of  the 
operator's  body  to  obtain  balance,  which  had  proved 
too  slow  to  be  reliable,  they  fitted  in  front  of  the  main 
supporting  surfaces  what  we  now  call  an  '  elevator,' 
which  could  be  flexed,  to  control  the  longitudinal 
balance,  from  where  the  operator  lay  prone  upon  the 
main  supporting  surfaces.  The  second  main  innovation 
which  they  incorporated  in  this  first  glider,  and  the 
principle  of  which  is  still  used  in  every  aeroplane  in 
existence,  was  the  attainment  of  lateral  balance  by 
warping  the  extremities  of  the  main  planes.  The 

277 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

effect  of  warping  or  pulling  down  the  extremity  of  the 
wing  on  one  side  was  to  increase  its  lift  and  so  cause 
that  side  to  rise.  In  the  first  two  gliders  this  control 
was  also  used  for  steering  to  right  and  left.  Both  these 
methods  of  control  were  novel  for  other  than  model 
work,  as  previous  experimenters,  such  as  Lilienthal 
and  Pilcher,  had  relied  entirely  upon  moving  the  legs 
or  shifting  the  position  of  the  body  to  control  the 
longitudinal  and  lateral  motions  of  their  gliders.  For 
the  main  supporting  surfaces  of  the  glider  the  biplane 
system  of  Chanute's  gliders  was  adopted  with  certain 
modifications,  while  the  curve  of  the  wings  was  founded 
upon  the  calculations  of  Lilienthal  as  to  wind  pressure 
and  consequent  lift  of  the  plane. 

This  first  glider  was  tested  on  the  Kill  Devil  Hill 
sand-hills  in  North  Carolina  in  the  summer  of  1900,  and 
proved  at  any  rate  the  correctness  of  the  principles  of 
the  front  elevator  and  warping  wings,  though  its  designers 
were  puzzled  by  the  fact  that  the  lift  was  less  than  they 
expected;  whilst  the  *  drag  '  (as  we  call  it),  or  resistance, 
was  also  considerably  lower  than  their  predictions. 
The  1901  machine  was,  in  consequence,  nearly  doubled 
in  area — the  lifting  surface  being  increased  from  165 
to  308  square  feet — the  first  trial  taking  place  on  July 
27th,  1901,  again  at  Kill  Devil  Hill.  It  immediately 
appeared  that  something  was  wrong,  as  the  machine 
dived  straight  to  the  ground,  and  it  was  only  after  the 
operator's  position  had  been  moved  nearly  a  foot  back 
from  what  had  been  calculated  as  the  correct  position 
that  the  machine  would  glide — and  even  then  the 
elevator  had  to  be  used  far  more  strongly  than  in  the 
previous  year's  glider.  After  a  good  deal  of  thought 
the  apparent  solution  of  the  trouble  was  finally  found. 

278 


THE  BEGINNINGS 

This  consisted  in  the  fact  that  with  curved  surfaces, 
while  at  large  angles  the  centre  of  pressure  moves 
forward  as  the  angle  decreases,  when  a  certain  limit  of 
angle  is  reached  it  travels  suddenly  backwards  and 
causes  the  machine  to  dive.  The  Wrights  had  known 
of  this  tendency  from  Lilienthal's  researches,  but  had 
imagined  that  the  phenomenon  would  disappear  if  they 
used  a  fairly  lightly  cambered — or  curved — surface 
with  a  very  abrupt  curve  at  the  front.  Having  discovered 
what  appeared  to  be  the  cause  they  surmounted  the 
difficulty  by  *  trussing  down  '  the  camber  of  the  wings, 
with  the  result  that  they  at  once  got  back  to  the  old 
conditions  of  the  previous  year  and  could  control  the 
machine  readily  with  small  movements  of  the  elevator, 
even  being  able  to  follow  undulations  in  the  ground. 
They  still  found,  however,  that  the  lift  was  not  as  great 
as  it  should  have  been;  while  the  drag  remained,  as  in 
the  previous  glider,  surprisingly  small.  This  threw 
doubt  on  previous  figures  as  to  wind  resistance  and 
pressure  on  curved  surfaces;  but  at  the  same  time 
confirmed  (and  this  was  a  most  important  result) 
Lilienthal's  previously  questioned  theory  that  at  small 
angles  the  pressure  on  a  curved  surface  instead  of  being 
normal,  or  at  right  angles  to,  the  chord  is  in  fact  inclined 
in  front  of  the  perpendicular.  The  result  of  this  is  that 
the  pressure  actually  tends  to  draw  the  machine  forward 
into  the  wind — hence  the  small  amount  of  drag,  which 
had  puzzled  Wilbur  and  Orville  Wright. 

Another  lesson  which  was  learnt  from  these  first 
two  years  of  experiment,  was  that  where,  as  in  a  biplane, 
two  surfaces  are  superposed  one  above  the  other,  each 
of  them  has  somewhat  less  lift  than  it  would  have  if 
used  alone.  The  experimenters  were  also  still  in  doubt 
H.A.  279  T 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

as  to  the  efficiency  of  the  warping  method  of  controlling 
the  lateral  balance  as  it  gave  rise  to  certain  phenomena 
which  puzzled  them,  the  machine  turning  towards  the 
wing  having  the  greater  angle,  which  seemed  also  to 
touch  the  ground  first,  contrary  to  their  expectations. 
Accordingly,  on  returning  to  Dayton  towards  the  end 
of  1901,  they  set  themselves  to  solve  the  various  problems 
which  had  appeared  and  started  on  a  lengthy  series  of 
experiments  to  check  the  previous  figures  as  to  wind 
resistance  and  lift  of  curved  surfaces,  besides  setting 
themselves  to  grapple  with  the  difficulty  of  lateral 
control.  They  accordingly  constructed  for  themselves 
at  their  home  in  Dayton  a  wind  tunnel  16  inches  square 
by  6  feet  long  in  which  they  measured  the  lift  and 
*  drag  '  of  more  than  two  hundred  miniature  wings. 
In  the  course  of  these  tests  they  for  the  first  time  produced 
comparative  results  of  the  lift  of  oblong  and  square 
surfaces,  with  the  result  that  they  re-discovered  the 
importance  of  *  aspect  ratio  ' — the  ratio  of  length  to 
breadth  of  planes.  As  a  result,  in  the  next  year's  glider 
the  aspect  ration  of  the  wings  was  increased  from  the 
three  to  one  of  the  earliest  model  to  about  six  to  one, 
which  is  approximately  the  same  as  that  used  in  the 
machines  of  to-day.  Further  than  that,  they  discussed 
the  question  of  lateral  stability,  and  came  to  the  con- 
clusion that  the  cause  of  the  trouble  was  that  the  effect  of 
warping  down  one  wing  was  to  increase  the  resistance 
of,  and  consequently  slow  down,  that  wing  to  such  an 
extent  that  its  lift  was  reduced  sufficiently  to  wipe  out 
the  anticipated  increase  in  lift  resulting  from  the  warping. 
From  this  they  deduced  that  if  the  speed  of  the  warped 
wing  could  be  controlled  the  advantage  of  increasing  the 
angle  by  warping  could  be  utilised  as  they  originally 

280 


THE  BEGINNINGS 

intended.  They  therefore  decided  to  fit  a  vertical  fin 
at  the  rear  which,  if  the  machine  attempted  to  turn, 
would  be  exposed  more  and  more  to  the  wind  and  so 
stop  the  turning  motion  by  offering  increased  resistance. 

As  a  result  of  this  laboratory  research  work  the 
third  Wright  glider,  which  was  taken  to  Kill  Devil  Hill 
in  September,  1902,  was  far  more  efficient  aerodynami- 
cally  than  either  of  its  two  predecessors,  and  was  fitted 
with  a  fixed  vertical  fin  at  the  rear  in  addition  to  the 
movable  elevator  in  front.  According  to  Mr  Griffith 
Brewer,1  this  third  glider  contained  305  square  feet  of 
surface;  though  there  may  possibly  be  a  mistake  here, 
as  he  states2  the  surface  of  the  previous  year's  glider  to 
have  been  only  290  square  feet,  whereas  Wilbur  Wright 
himself3  states  it  to  have  been  308  square  feet.  The 
matter  is  not,  perhaps,  save  historically,  of  much  im- 
portance, except  that  the  gliders  are  believed  to  have 
been  progressively  larger,  and  therefore  if  we  accept 
Wilbur  Wright's  own  figure  of  the  surface  of  the  second 
glider,  the  third  must  have  had  a  greater  area  than  that 
given  by  Mr  Griffith  Brewer.  Unfortunately,  no 
evidence  of  the  Wright  Brothers  themselves  on  this 
point  is  available. 

The  first  glide  of  the  1902  season  was  made  on 
September  i  yth  of  that  year,  and  the  new  machine  at  once 
showed  itself  an  improvement  on  its  predecessors,  though 
subsequent  trials  showed  that  the  difficulty  of  lateral 
balance  had  not  been  entirely  overcome.  It  was  decided, 
therefore,  to  turn  the  vertical  fin  at  the  rear  into  a  rudder 
by  making  it  movable.  At  the  same  time  it  was  realised 

1  Fourth    Wilbur    Wright    Memorial    Lecture,    Aeronautical   Journal, 
Vol.  XX,  No.  79,  page  75. 

3  Ibid,  page  73.  3  Ibid.  pp.  91  and  loz. 

28l 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

that  there  was  a  definite  relation  between  lateral  balance 
and  directional  control,  and  the  rudder  controls  and 
wing- warping  wires  were  accordingly  connected.  This 
ended  the  pioneer  gliding  experiments  of  Wilbur  and 
Orville  Wright — though  further  glides  were  made  in 
subsequent  years — as  the  following  year,  1903,  saw 
the  first  power-driven  machine  leave  the  ground. 

To  recapitulate — in  the  course  of  these  original 
experiments  the  Wrights  confirmed  Lilienthal's  theory 
of  the  reversal  of  the  centre  of  pressure  on  cambered 
surfaces  at  small  angles  of  incidence:  they  confirmed 
the  importance  of  high  aspect  ratio  in  respect  to  lift: 
they  had  evolved  new  and  more  accurate  tables  of  lift 
and  pressure  on  cambered  surfaces:  they  were  the 
first  to  use  a  movable  horizontal  elevator  for  controlling 
height:  they  were  the  first  to  adjust  the  wings  to  different 
angles  of  incidence  to  maintain  lateral  balance:  and 
they  were  the  first  to  use  the  movable  rudder  and 
adjustable  wings  in  combination. 

They  now  considered  that  they  had  gone  far  enough 
to  justify  them  in  building  a  power-driven  *  flier,'  as 
they  called  their  first  aeroplane.  They  could  find  no 
suitable  engine  and  so  proceeded  to  build  for  themselves 
an  internal  combustion  engine,  which  was  designed  to 
give  8  horse-power,  but  when  completed  actually 
developed  about  12-15  horse-power  and  weighed  240 
Ibs.  The  complete  machine  weighed  about  750  Ibs. 
Further  details  of  the  first  Wright  aeroplane  are  difficult 
to  obtain,  and  even  those  here  given  should  be  received 
with  some  caution.  The  first  flight  was  made  on 
December  xyth,  1903,  and  lasted  12  seconds.  Others 
followed  immediately,  and  the  fourth  lasted  59  seconds, 
a  distance  of  852  feet  being  covered  against  a  2o-mile  wind. 

282 


THE  BEGINNINGS 

The  following  year  they  transferred  operations  to 
a  field  outside  Dayton,  Ohio  (their  home),  and  there 
they  flew  a  somewhat  larger  and  heavier  machine  with 
which  on  September  2oth,  1904,  they  completed  the 
first  circle  in  the  air.  In  this  machine  for  the  first  time 
the  pilot  had  a  seat;  all  the  previous  experiments  having 
been  carried  out  with  the  operator  lying  prone  on  the 
lower  wing.  This  was  followed  next  year  by  another 
still  larger  machine,  and  on  it  they  carried  out  many 
flights.  During  the  course  of  these  flights  they  satisfied 
themselves  as  to  the  cause  of  a  phenomenon  which  had 
puzzled  them  during  the  previous  year  and  caused  them 
to  fear  that  they  had  not  solved  the  problem  of  lateral 
control.  They  found  that  on  occasions — always  when 
on  a  turn — the  machine  began  to  slide  down  towards 
the  ground  and  that  no  amount  of  warping  could  stop 
it.  Finally  it  was  found  that  if  the  nose  of  the  machine 
was  tilted  down  a  recovery  could  be  effected;  from 
which  they  concluded  that  what  actually  happened  was 
that  the  machine,  *  owing  to  the  increased  load  caused 
by  centrifugal  force,'  had  insufficient  power  to  maintain 
itself  in  the  air  and  therefore  lost  speed  until  a  point 
was  reached  at  which  the  controls  became  inoperative. 
In  other  words,  this  was  the  first  experience  of  *  stalling 
on  a  turn,'  which  is  a  danger  against  which  all  embryo 
pilots  have  to  guard  in  the  early  stages  of  their  training. 

The  1905  machine  was,  like  its  predecessors,  a 
biplane  with  a  biplane  elevator  in  front  and  a  double 
vertical  rudder  in  rear.  The  span  was  40  feet,  the 
chord  of  the  wings  being  6  feet  and  the  gap  between 
them  about  the  same.  The  total  area  was  about  600 
square  feet  which  supported  a  total  weight  of  925  Ibs.; 
while  the  motor  was  12  to  15  horse-power  driving  two 

283 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

propellers  on  each  side  behind  the  main  planes  through 
chains  and  giving  the  machine  a  speed  of  about  30 
m.p.h.  One  of  these  chains  was  crossed  so  that  the 
propellers  revolved  in  opposite  directions  to  avoid  the 
torque  which  it  was  feared  would  be  set  up  if  they  both 
revolved  the  same  way.  The  machine  was  not  fitted 
with  a  wheeled  undercarriage  but  was  carried  on  two 
skids,  which  also  acted  as  outriggers  to  carry  the  elevator. 
Consequently,  a  mechanical  method  of  launching  had 
to  be  evolved  and  the  machine  received  initial  velocity 
from  a  rail,  along  which  it  was  drawn  by  the  impetus 
provided  by  the  falling  of  a  weight  from  a  wooden 
tower  or  *  pylon.'  As  a  result  of  this  the  Wright 
aeroplane  in  its  original  form  had  to  be  taken  back  to 
its  starting  rail  after  each  flight,  and  could  not  restart 
from  the  point  of  alighting.  Perhaps,  in  comparison 
with  French  machines  of  more  or  less  contemporary 
date  (evolved  on  independent  lines  in  ignorance  of  the 
Americans'  work),  the  chief  feature  of  the  Wright 
biplane  of  1905  was  that  it  relied  entirely  upon  the  skill 
of  the  operator  for  its  stability;  whereas  in  France  some 
attempt  was  being  made,  although  perhaps  not  very 
successfully,  to  make  the  machine  automatically  stable 
laterally.  The  performance  of  the  Wrights  in  carrying 
a  loading  of  some  60  Ibs.  per  horse-power  is  one  which 
should  not  be  overlooked.  The  wing  loading  was 
about  i|  Ibs.  per  square  foot. 

About  the  same  time  that  the  Wrights  were  carrying 
out  their  power-driven  experiments,  a  band  of  pioneers 
was  quite  independently  beginning  to  approach  success 
in  France.  In  practically  every  case,  however,  they 
started  from  a  somewhat  different  standpoint  and  took 
as  their  basic  idea  the  cellular  (or  box)  kite.  This  form 

284 


THE  BEGINNINGS 

of  kite,  consisting  of  two  superposed  surfaces  connected 
at  each  end  by  a  vertical  panel  or  curtain  of  fabric,  had 
proved  extremely  successful  for  man-carrying  purposes, 
and,  therefore,  it  was  little  wonder  that  several  minds 
conceived  the  idea  of  attempting  to  fly  by  fitting  a  series 
of  box-kites  with  an  engine.  The  first  to  achieve  success 
was  M.  Santos-Dumont,  the  famous  Brazilian  pioneer- 
designer  of  airships,  who,  on  November  I2th,  1906, 
made  several  flights,  the  last  of  which  covered  a  little 
over  700  feet.  Santos-Dumont's  machine  consisted 
essentially  of  two  box-kites,  forming  the  main  wings, 
one  on  each  side  of  the  body,  in  which  the  pilot  stood, 
and  at  the  front  extremity  of  which  was  another  movable 
box-kite  to  act  as  elevator  and  rudder.  The  curtains 
at  the  ends  were  intended  to  give  lateral  stability,  which 
was  further  ensured  by  setting  the  wings  slightly  inclined 
upwards  from  the  centre,  so  that  when  seen  from  the 
front  they  formed  a  wide  V.  This  feature  is  still  to  be 
found  in  many  aeroplanes  to-day  and  has  come  to  be 
known  as  the  *  dihedral.'  The  motor  was  at  first  of 
24  horse-power,  for  which  later  a  50  horse-power 
Antoinette  engine  was  substituted;  whilst  a  three- 
wheeled  undercarriage  was  provided,  so  that  the 
machine  could  start  without  external  mechanical  aid. 
The  machine  was  constructed  of  bamboo  and  steel, 
the  weight  being  as  low  as  352  Ibs.  The  span  was  40 
feet,  the  length  being  33  feet,  with  a  total  surface  of 
main  planes  of  860  square  feet.  It  will  thus  be  seen — 
for  comparison  with  the  Wright  machine — that  the 
weight  per  horse-power  (with  the  50  horse-power 
engine)  was  only  7  Ibs.,  while  the  wing  loading  was 
equally  low  at  £  Ib.  per  square  foot. 

The  main   features  of  the   Santos-Dumont  machine 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

were  the  box-kite  form  of  construction,  with  a  dihedral 
angle  on  the  main  planes,  and  the  forward  elevator 
which  could  be  moved  in  any  direction  and  therefore 
acted  in  the  same  way  as  the  rudder  at  the  rear  of  the 
Wright  biplane.  It  had  a  single  propeller  revolving 
in  the  centre  behind  the  wings  and  was  fitted  with  an 
undercarriage  incorporated  in  the  machine. 

The  other  chief  French  experimenters  at  this  period 
were  the  Voisin  Fr£res,  whose  first  two  machines — 
identical  in  form — were  sold  to  Delagrange  and  H. 
Farman,  which  has  sometimes  caused  confusion,  the 
two  purchasers  being  credited  with  the  design  they 
bought.  The  Voisins,  like  the  Wrights,  based  their 
designs  largely  on  the  experimental  work  of  Lilienthal, 
Langley,  Chanute,  and  others,  though  they  also  carried 
out  tests  on  the  lifting  properties  of  aerofoils  in  a  wind 
tunnel  of  their  own.  Their  first  machines,  like  those 
of  Santos-Dumont,  showed  the  effects  of  experimenting 
with  box-kites,  some  of  which  they  had  built  for  M. 
Ernest  Archdeacon  in  1904.  In  their  case  the  machine, 
which  was  again  a  biplane,  had,  like  both  the  others 
previously  mentioned,  an  elevator  in  front — though 
in  this  case  of  monoplane  form — and,  as  in  the  Wright, 
a  rudder  was  fitted  in  rear  of  the  main  planes.  The 
Voisins,  however,  fitted  a  fixed  biplane  horizontal  *  tail ' — 
in  an  effort  to  obtain  a  measure  of  automatic  longitudinal 
stability — between  the  two  surfaces  of  which  the  single 
rudder  worked.  For  lateral  stability  they  depended 
entirely  on  end  curtains  between  the  upper  and  lower 
surfaces  of  both  the  main  planes  and  biplane  tail  surfaces. 
They,  like  Santos-Dumont,  fitted  a  wheeled  under- 
carriage, so  that  the  machine  was  self-contained.  The 
Voisin  machine,  then,  was  intended  to  be  automatically 

286 


THE  BEGINNINGS 

stable  in  both  senses;  whereas  the  Wrights  deliberately 
produced  a  machine  which  was  entirely  dependent 
upon  the  pilot's  skill  for  its  stability.  The  dimensions 
of  the  Voisin  may  be  given  for  comparative  purposes, 
and  were  as  follows:  Span  33  feet  with  a  chord  (width 
from  back  to  front)  of  main  planes  of  6J  feet,  giving  a 
total  area  of  430  square  feet.  The  50  horse-power 
Antoinette  engine,  which  was  enclosed  in  the  body 
(or  '  nacelle  ')  in  the  front  of  which  the  pilot  sat,  drove 
a  propeller  behind,  revolving  between  the  outriggers 
carrying  the  tail.  The  total  weight,  including  Farman 
as  pilot,  is  given  as  1,540  Ibs.,  so  that  the  machine  was 
much  heavier  than  either  of  the  others ;  the  weight  per 
horse-power  being  midway  between  the  Santos-Dumont 
and  the  Wright  at  31  Ibs.  per  square  foot,  while  the 
wing  loading  was  considerably  greater  than  either  at 
3^  Ibs.  per  square  foot.  The  Voisin  machine  was 
experimented  with  by  Farman  and  Delagrange  from 
about  June  1907  onwards,  and  was  in  the  subsequent 
years  developed  by  Farman;  and  right  up  to  the  com- 
mencement of  the  War  upheld  the  principles  of  the 
box-kite  method  of  construction  for  training  purposes. 
The  chief  modification  of  the  original  design  was  the 
addition  of  flaps  (or  ailerons)  at  the  rear  extremities  of 
the  main  planes  to  give  lateral  control,  in  a  manner 
analogous  to  the  wing-warping  method  invented  by 
the  Wrights,  as  a  result  of  which  the  end  curtains 
between  the  planes  were  abolished.  An  additional 
elevator  was  fitted  at  the  rear  of  the  fixed  biplane  tail, 
which  eventually  led  to  the  discarding  of  the  front 
elevator  altogether.  During  the  same  period  the  Wright 
machine  came  into  line  with  the  others  by  the  fitting  of 
a  wheeled  undercarriage  integral  with  the  machine. 

287 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

A  fixed  horizontal  tail  was  also  added  to  the  rear  rudder, 
to  which  a  movable  elevator  was  hter  attached;  and, 
finally,  the  front  elevator  was  done  away  with.  It  will 
thus  be  seen  that  having  started  from  the  very  different 
standpoints  of  automatic  stability  and  complete  control 
by  the  pilot,  the  Voisin  (as  developed  in  the  Farman) 
and  Wright  machines,  through  gradual  evolution 
finally  resulted  in  aeroplanes  of  similar  characteristics 
embodying  a  modicum  of  both  features. 

Before  proceeding  to  the  next  stage  of  progress 
mention  should  be  made  of  the  experimental  work  of 
Captain  Ferber  in  France.  This  ofBcer  carried  out  a 
large  number  of  experiments  with  gliders  contemporarily 
with  the  Wrights,  adopting — like  them — the  Chanute 
biplane  principle.  He  adopted  the  front  elevator  from 
the  Wrights,  but  immediately  went  a  step  farther  by 
also  fitting  a  fixed  tail  in  rear,  which  did  not  become  a 
feature  of  the  Wright  machine  until  some  seven  or 
eight  years  later.  He  built  and  appeared  to  have  flown 
a  machine  fitted  with  a  motor  in  1905,  and  was  com- 
missioned to  go  to  America  by  the  French  War  Office 
on  a  secret  mission  to  the  Wrights.  Unfortunately,  no 
complete  account  of  his  experiments  appears  to  exist, 
though  it  can  be  said  that  his  work  was  at  least  as 
important  as  that  of  any  of  the  other  pioneers  mentioned. 


288 


II 

MULTIPLICITY    OF    IDEAS 

IN  a  review  of  progress  such  as  this,  it  is  obviously 
impossible,  when  a  certain  stage  of  development 
has  been  reached,  owing  to  the  very  multiplicity  of 
experimenters,  to  continue  dealing  in  anything  approach- 
ing detail  with  all  the  different  types  of  machines ;  and  it 
is  proposed,  therefore,  from  this  point  to  deal  only  with 
tendencies,  and  to  mention  individuals  merely  as 
examples  of  a  class  of  thought  rather  than  as  personalities, 
as  it  is  often  difficult  fairly  to  allocate  the  responsibility 
for  any  particular  innovation. 

During  1907  and  1908  a  new  type  of  machine,  in 
the  monoplane,  began  to  appear  from  the  workshops 
of  Louis  Bleriot,  Robert  Esnault-Pelterie,  and  others, 
which  was  destined  to  give  rise  to  long  and  bitter 
controversies  on  the  relative  advantages  of  the  two 
types,  into  which  it  is  not  proposed  to  enter  here;  though 
the  rumblings  of  the  conflict  are  still  to  be  heard  by 
discerning  ears.  Ble'riot's  early  monoplanes  had  certain 
new  features,  such  as  the  location  of  the  pilot,  and  in 
some  cases  the  engine,  below  the  wing;  but  in  general 
his  monoplanes,  particularly  the  famous  No.  XI  on 
which  the  first  Channel  crossing  was  made  on  July  2^th, 
1909,  embodied  the  main  principles  of  the  Wright  and 
Voisin  types,  except  that  the  propeller  was  in  front  of 
instead  of  behind  the  supporting  surfaces,  and  was, 
therefore,  what  is  called  a  *  tractor '  in  place  of  the  then  more 
conventional  '  pusher.*  Bleriot  aimed  at  lateral  balance 

289 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

by  having  the  tip  of  each  wing  pivoted,  though  he  soon 
fell  into  line  with  the  Wrights  and  adopted  the  warping 
system.  The  main  features  of  the  design  of  Esnault- 
Pelterie's  monoplane  was  the  inverted  dihedral  (or  kat- 
hedral  as  this  was  called  in  Mr  S.  F.  Cody's  British  Army 
Biplane  of  1907)  on  the  wings,  whereby  the  tips  were 
considerably  lower  than  the  roots  at  the  body.  This 
was  designed  to  give  automatic  lateral  stability,  but, 
here  again,  conventional  practice  was  soon  adopted 
and  the  R.E.P.  monoplanes,  which  became  well-known 
in  this  country  through  their  adoption  in  the  early  days 
by  Messrs  Vickers,  were  of  the  ordinary  monoplane 
design,  consisting  of  a  tractor  propeller  with  wire- 
stayed  wings,  the  pilot  being  in  an  enclosed  fuselage 
containing  the  engine  in  front  and  carrying  at  its  rear 
extremity  fixed  horizontal  and  vertical  surfaces  combined 
with  movable  elevators  and  rudder.  Constructionally, 
the  R.E.P.  monoplane  was  of  extreme  interest  as  the 
body  was  constructed  of  steel.  The  Antoinette  mono- 
plane, so  ably  flown  by  Latham,  was  another  very  famous 
machine  of  the  1909-1910  period,  though  its  performance 
were  frequently  marred  by  engine  failure;  which  was 
indeed  the  bugbear  of  all  these  early  experimenters,  and 
it  is  difficult  to  say,  after  this  lapse  of  time,  how  far  in 
many  cases  the  failures  which  occurred,  both  in  perform- 
ances and  even  in  the  actual  ability  to  rise  from  the 
ground,  were  due  to  defects  in  design  or  merely  faults 
in  the  primitive  engines  available.  The  Antoinette 
aroused  admiration  chiefly  through  its  graceful,  bird- 
like  lines,  which  have  probably  never  been  equalled; 
but  its  chief  interest  for  our  present  purpose  lies  in  the 
novel  method  of  wing-staying  which  was  employed. 
Contemporary  monoplanes  practically  all  had  their 

290 


CD 
CM 

CD 

1 

'5 
4J 

< 

in 


MULTIPLICITY   OF   IDEAS 

wings  stayed  by  wires  to  a  post  in  the  centre  above 
the  fuselage,  and,  usually,  to  the  undercarriage  below. 
In  the  Antoinette,  however,  a  king  post  was  introduced 
half-way  along  the  wing,  from  which  wires  were  carried 
to  the  ends  of  the  wings  and  the  body.  This  was  intended 
to  give  increased  strength  and  permitted  of  a  greater 
wing-spread  and  consequently  improved  aspect  ratio. 
The  same  system  of  construction  was  adopted  in  the 
British  Martinsyde  monoplanes  of  two  or  three  years  later. 

This  period  also  saw  the  production  of  the  first 
triplane,  which  was  built  by  A.  V.  Roe  in  England  and 
was  fitted  with  a  J.A.P.  engine  of  only  9  horse-power 
— an  amazing  performance  which  remains  to  this  day 
unequalled.  Mr  Roe's  triplane  was  chiefly  interesting 
otherwise  for  the  method  of  maintaining  longitudinal 
control,  which  was  achieved  by  pivoting  the  whole  of 
the  three  main  planes  so  that  their  angle  of  incidence 
could  be  altered.  This  was  the  direct  converse  of  the 
universal  practice  of  elevating  by  means  of  a  subsidiary 
surface  either  in  front  or  rear  of  the  main  planes. 

Recollection  of  the  various  flying  meetings  and 
exhibitions  which  one  attended  during  the  years  from 
1909  to  1911,  or  even  1912,  are  chiefly  notable  for  the 
fact  that  the  first  thought  on  seeing  any  new  type  of 
machine  was  not  as  to  what  its  *  performance  ' — in 
speed,  lift,  or  what  not — would  be;  but  speculation  as 
to  whether  it  would  leave  the  ground  at  all  when 
eventually  tried.  This  is  perhaps  the  best  indication 
of  the  outstanding  characteristic  of  that  interim  period 
between  the  time  of  the  first  actual  flights  and  the  later 
period,  commencing  about  1912,  when  ideas  had  become 
settled  and  it  was  at  last  becoming  possible  to  forecast 
on  the  drawing-board  the  performance  of  the  completed 

291 


A  HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

machine  in  the  air.  Without  going  into  details,  for 
which  there  is  no  space  here,  it  is  difficult  to  convey  the 
correct  impression  of  the  chaotic  state  which  existed  as 
to  even  the  elementary  principles  of  aeroplane  design. 
All  the  exhibitions  contained  large  numbers — one  had 
almost  written  a  majority — of  machines  which  embodied 
the  most  unusual  features  and  which  never  could,  and 
in  practice  never  did,  leave  the  ground.  At  the  same  time, 
there  were  few  who  were  sufficiently  hardy  to  say 
certainly  that  this  or  that  innovation  was  wrong;  and 
consequently  dozens  of  inventors  in  every  country  were 
conducting  isolated  experiments  on  both  good  and  bad 
lines.  All  kinds  of  devices,  mechanical  and  otherwise, 
were  claimed  as  the  solution  of  the  problem  of  stability, 
and  there  was  even  controversy  as  to  whether  any  measure 
of  stability  was  not  undesirable;  one  school  maintaining 
that  the  only  safety  lay  in  the  pilot  having  the  sole  say 
in  the  attitude  of  the  machine  at  any  given  moment, 
and  fearing  danger  from  the  machine  having  any  mind 
of  its  own,  so  to  speak.  There  was,  as  in  most 
controversies,  some  right  on  both  sides,  and  when  we 
come  to  consider  the  more  settled  period  from  1912  to 
the  outbreak  of  the  War  in  1914  we  shall  find  how  a 
compromise  was  gradually  effected. 

At  the  same  time,  however,  though  it  was  at  the 
time  difficult  to  pick  out,  there  was  very  real  progress 
being  made,  and,  though  a  number  of  *  freak  '  machines 
fell  out  by  the  wayside,  the  pioneer  designers  of  those 
days  learnt  by  a  process  of  trial  and  error  the  right 
principles  to  follow  and  gradually  succeeded  in  getting 
their  ideas  crystallised. 

In  connection  with  stability  mention  must  be  made 
of  a  machine  which  was  evolved  in  the  utmost  secrecy 

292 


MULTIPLICITY  OF   IDEAS 

by  Mr  J.  W.  Dunne  in  a  remote  part  of  Scotland  under 
subsidy  from  the  War  Office.  This  type,  which  was 
constructed  in  both  monoplane  and  biplane  form,  showed 
that  it  was  in  fact  possible  in  1910  and  1911  to  design 
an  aeroplane  which  could  definitely  be  left  to  fly  itself 
in  the  air.  One  of  the  Dunne  machines  was,  for  example, 
flown  from  Farnborough  to  Salisbury  Plain  without  any 
control  other  than  the  rudder  being  touched ;  and  on  another 
occasion  it  flew  a  complete  circle  with  all  controls  locked, 
automatically  assuming  the  correct  bank  for  the  radius 
of  turn.  The  peculiar  form  of  wing  used,  the  camber 
of  which  varied  from  the  root  to  the  tip,  gave  rise, 
however,  to  a  certain  loss  in  efficiency,  and  there  was 
also  a  difficulty  in  the  pilot  assuming  adequate  control 
when  desired.  Other  machines  designed  to  be  stable 
— such  as  the  German  Etrich  and  the  British  Weiss 
gliders  and  Handley-Page  monoplanes — were  based 
on  the  analogy  of  a  wing  attached  to  a  certain  seed  found 
in  Nature  (the  *  Zanonia'  leaf),  on  the  righting  effect 
of  back-sloped  wings  combined  with  upturned  (or 
'  negative ')  tips.  Generally  speaking,  however,  the 
machines  of  the  1909-1912  period  relied  for  what 
automatic  stability  they  had  on  the  principle  of  the 
dihedral  angle,  or  flat  V,  both  longitudinally  and  laterally. 
Longitudinally  this  was  obtained  by  setting  the  tail  at 
a  slightly  smaller  angle  than  the  main  planes. 

The  question  of  reducing  the  resistance  by  adopting 
1  stream-line  '  forms,  along  which  the  air  could  flow 
uninterruptedly  without  the  formation  of  eddies,  was 
not  at  first  properly  realised,  though  credit  should  be 
given  to  Edouard  Nieuport,  who  in  1909  produced  a 
monoplane  with  a  very  large  body  which  almost  com- 
pletely enclosed  the  pilot  and  made  the  machine  very 

293 


A  HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

fast,  for  those  days,  with  low  horse-power.  On  one 
of  these  machines  C.  T.  Weymann  won  the  Gordon- 
Bennett  Cup  for  America  in  1911,  and  another  put 
up  a  fine  performance  in  the  same  race  with  only  a 
30  horse-power  engine.  The  subject,  was  however, 
early  taken  up  by  the  British  Advisory  Committee 
for  Aeronautics,  which  was  established  by  the 
Government  in  1909,  and  designers  began  to  realise 
the  importance  of  streamline  struts  and  fuselages 
towards  the  end  of  this  transition  period.  These 
efforts  were  at  first  not  always  successful  and  showed 
at  times  a  lack  of  understanding  of  the  problems 
involved,  but  there  was  a  very  marked  improvement 
during  the  year  1912.  At  the  Paris  Aero  Salon 
held  early  in  that  year  there  was  a  notable  variety  of 
ideas  on  the  subject;  whereas  by  the  time  of  the  one 
held  in  October  designs  had  considerably  settled  down, 
more  than  one  exhibitor  showing  what  were  called 
'  monocoque '  fuselages  completely  circular  in  shape 
and  having  very  low  resistance,  while  the  same  show 
saw  the  introduction  of  rotating  cowls  over  the  propeller 
bosses,  or  *  spinners/  as  they  came  to  be  called  during 
the  War.  A  particularly  fine  example  of  stream-lining 
was  to  be  found  in  the  Deperdussin  monoplane  on  which 
Vedrines  won  back  the  Gordon-Bennett  Aviation  Cup 
from  America  at  a  speed  of  105*5  m.p.h. — a  considerable 
improvement  on  the  78  m.p.h.  of  the  preceding  year, 
which  was  by  no  means  accounted  for  by  the  mere 
increase  in  engine  power  from  100  horse-power  to  140 
horse-power.  This  machine  was  the  first  in  which  the 
refinement  of  *  stream-lining  '  the  pilot's  head,  which 
became  a  feature  of  subsequent  racing  machines,  was 
introduced.  This  consisted  of  a  circular  padded 

294 


MULTIPLICITY  OF  IDEAS 

cxcresence  above  the  cockpit  immediately  behind  the 
pilot's  head,  which  gradually  tapered  off  into  the  top 
surface  of  the  fuselage.  The  object  was  to  give  the  air 
an  uninterrupted  flow  instead  of  allowing  it  to  be  broken 
up  into  eddies  behind  the  head  of  the  pilot,  and  it  also 
provided  a  support  against  the  enormous  wind-pressure 
encountered.  This  true  stream-line  form  of  fuselage 
owed  its  introduction  to  the  Paulhan-Tatin  '  Torpille  ' 
monoplane  of  the  Paris  Salon  of  early  1912.  Altogether 
the  end  of  the  year  1912  began  to  see  the  disappearance 
of  '  freak  '  machines  with  all  sorts  of  original  ideas  for 
the  increase  of  stability  and  performance.  Designs 
had  by  then  gradually  become  to  a  considerable  extent 
standardised,  and  it  had  become  unusual  to  find  a 
machine  built  which  would  fail  to  fly.  The  Gnome 
engine  held  the  field  owing  to  its  advantages,  as  the 
first  of  the  rotary  type,  in  lightness  and  ease  of  fitting 
into  the  nose  of  a  fuselage.  The  majority  of  machines 
were  tractors  (propeller  in  front)  although  a  preference, 
which  died  down  subsequently,  was  still  shown  for  the 
monoplane  over  the  biplane.  This  year  also  saw  a  great 
increase  in  the  number  of  seaplanes,  although  the 
*  flying  boat '  type  had  only  appeared  at  intervals  and 
the  vast  majority  were  of  the  ordinary  aeroplane  type 
fitted  with  floats  in  place  of  the  land  undercarriage; 
which  type  was  at  that  time  commonly  called  *  hydro- 
aeroplane.' The  usual  horse  power  was  50 — that  of 
the  smallest  Gnome  engine — although  engines  of  100 
to  140  horse-power  were  also  fitted  occasionally.  The 
average  weight  per  horse-power  varied  from  18  to  25 
Ibs.,  while  the  wing-loading  was  usually  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  5  to  6  Ibs.  per  square  foot.  The  average 
speed  ranged  from  65-75  miles  per  hour. 

H,A.  295  U 


Ill 

PROGRESS    ON    STANDARDISED    LINES 

IN  the  last  section  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  show 
how,  during  what  was  from  the  design  standpoint 
perhaps  the  most  critical  period,  order  gradually  became 
evident  out  of  chaos,  ill-considered  ideas  dropped  out 
through  failure  to  make  good,  and,  though  there  was 
still  plenty  of  room  for  improvement  in  details,  the  bulk 
of  the  aeroplanes  showed  a  general  similarity  in  form 
and  conception.  There  was  still  a  great  deal  to  be  learnt 
in  finding  the  best  form  of  wing  section,  and  performances 
were  still  low;  but  it  had  become  definitely  possible  to 
say  that  flying  had  emerged  from  the  chrysalis  stage 
and  had  become  a  science.  The  period  which  now 
began  was  one  of  scientific  development  and  improve- 
ment— in  performance,  manoeuvrability,  and  general 
airworthiness  and  stability. 

The  British  Military  Aeroplane  Competition  held 
in  the  summer  of  1912  had  done  much  to  show  the 
requirements  in  design  by  giving  possibly  the  first 
opportunity  for  a  definite  comparison  of  the  performance 
of  different  machines  as  measured  by  impartial  observers 
on  standard  lines — albeit  the  methods  of  measuring 
were  crude.  These  showed  that  a  high  speed — for 
those  days — of  75  miles  an  hour  or  so  was  attended 
by  disadvantages  in  the  form  of  an  equally  fast  low 
speed,  of  50  miles  per  hour  or  more,  and  generally  may 

296 


PROGRESS  ON  STANDARDISED  LINES 

be  said  to  have  given  designers  an  idea  what  to  aim  for 
and  in  what  direction  improvements  were  required. 
In  fact,  the  most  noticeable  point  perhaps  of  the  machines 
of  this  time  was  the  marked  manner  in  which  a  machine 
that  was  good  in  one  respect  would  be  found  to  be  wanting 
in  others.  It  had  not  yet  been  possible  to  combine 
several  desirable  attributes  in  one  machine.  The 
nearest  approach  to  this  was  perhaps  to  be  found  in  the 
much  discussed  Government  B.E.2  machine,  which 
was  produced  from  the  Royal  Aircraft  Factory  at 
Farnborough,  in  the  summer  of  1912.  Though  con- 
siderably criticised  from  many  points  of  view  it  was 
perhaps  the  nearest  approach  to  a  machine  of  all-round 
efficiency  that  had  up  to  that  date  appeared.  The 
climbing  rate,  which  subsequently  proved  so  important 
for  military  purposes,  was  still  low,  seldom,  if  ever, 
exceeding  400  feet  per  minute;  while  gliding  angles 
(ratio  of  descent  to  forward  travel  over  the  ground  with 
engine  stopped)  little  exceeded  i  in  8. 

The  year  1912  and  1913  saw  the  subsequently  all- 
conquering  tractor  biplane  begin  to  come  into  its  own. 
This  type,  which  probably  originated  in  England,  and 
at  any  rate  attained  to  its  greatest  excellence  prior  to  the 
War  from  the  drawing  offices  of  the  Avro  Bristol  and 
Sopwith  firms,  dealt  a  blow  at  the  monoplane  from 
which  the  latter  never  recovered. 

The  two-seater  tractor  biplane  produced  by  Sopwith 
and  piloted  by  H.  G.  Hawker,  showed  that  it  was 
possible  to  produce  a  biplane  with  at  least  equal  speed 
to  the  best  monoplanes,  whilst  having  the  advantage 
of  greater  strength  and  lower  landing  speeds.  The 
Sopwith  machine  had  a  top  speed  of  over  80  miles  an 
hour  while  landing  as  slowly  as  little  more  than  30  miles 

297 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

an  hour;  and  also  proved  that  it  was  possible  to  carry 
3  passengers  with  fuel  for  4  hours'  flight  with  a  motive 
power  of  only  80  horse-power.  This  increase  in 
efficiency  was  due  to  careful  attention  to  detail  in  every 
part,  improved  wing  sections,  clean  fuselage-lines,  and 
simplified  undercarriages.  At  the  same  time,  in  the 
early  part  of  1913  a  tendency  manifested  itself  towards 
the  four-wheeled  undercarriage,  a  pair  of  smaller  wheels 
being  added  in  front  of  the  main  wheels  to  prevent 
overturning  while  running  on  the  ground;  and  several 
designs  of  oleo-pneumatic  and  steel-spring  under- 
carriages were  produced  in  place  of  the  rubber  shock- 
absorber  type  which  had  up  till  then  been  almost  universal. 

These  two  statements  as  to  undercarriage  designs 
may  appear  to  be  contradictory,  but  in  reality  they  do 
not  conflict  as  they  both  showed  a  greater  attention  to 
the  importance  of  good  springing,  combined  with  a 
desire  to  avoid  complication  and  a  mass  of  struts  and 
wires  which  increased  head  resistance. 

The  Olympia  Aero  Show  of  March,  1913,  also 
produced  a  machine  which,  although  the  type  was  not 
destined  to  prove  the  best  for  the  purpose  for  which  it 
was  designed,  was  of  interest  as  being  the  first  to  be 
designed  specially  for  war  purposes.  This  was  the 
Vickers  '  Gun-bus,'  a  '  pusher '  machine,  with  the 
propeller  revolving  behind  the  main  planes  between  the 
outriggers  carrying  the  tail,  with  a  seat  right  in  front 
for  a  gunner  who  was  provided  with  a  machine  gun  on 
a  swivelling  mount  which  had  a  free  field  of  fire  in 
every  direction  forward.  The  device  which  proved  the 
death-blow  for  this  type  of  aircraft  during  the  war 
will  be  dealt  with  in  the  appropriate  place  later,  but  the 
machine  should  not  go  unrecorded. 

298 


PROGRESS  ON  STANDARDISED  LINES 

As  a  result  of  a  number  of  accidents  to  monoplanes 
the  Government  appointed  a  Committee  at  the  end  of 
1912  to  inquire  into  the  causes  of  these.  The  report, 
which  was  presented  in  March,  1913,  exonerated  the 
monoplane  by  coming  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
accidents  were  not  caused  by  conditions  peculiar  to 
monoplanes,  but  pointed  out  certain  desiderata  in  aero- 
plane design  generally  which  are  worth  recording. 
They  recommended  that  the  wings  of  aeroplanes  should 
be  so  internally  braced  as  to  have  sufficient  strength 
in  themselves  not  to  collapse  if  the  external  bracing 
wires  should  give  way.  The  practice,  more  common 
in  monoplanes  than  biplanes,  of  carrying  important 
bracing  wires  from  the  wings  to  the  undercarriage  was 
condemned  owing  to  the  liability  of  damage  from 
frequent  landings.  They  also  pointed  out  the  desira- 
bility of  duplicating  all  main  wires  and  their  attachments, 
and  of  using  stranded  cable  for  control  wires.  Owing 
to  the  suspicion  that  one  accident  at  least  had  been 
caused  through  the  tearing  of  the  fabric  away  from  the 
wing,  it  was  recommended  that  fabric  should  be  more 
securely  fastened  to  the  ribs  of  the  wings,  and  that 
devices  for  preventing  the  spreading  of  tears  should  be 
considered.  In  the  last  connection  it  is  interesting  to 
note  that  the  French  Deperdussin  firm  produced  a 
fabric  wing-covering  with  extra  strong  threads  run  at 
right-angles  through  the  fabric  at  intervals  in  order  to 
limit  the  tearing  to  a  defined  area. 

In  spite,  however,  of  the  whitewashing  of  the 
monoplane  by  the  Government  Committee  just  mentioned, 
considerable  stir  was  occasioned  later  in  the  year  by 
the  decision  of  the  War  Office  not  to  order  any  more 
monoplanes;  and  from  this  time  forward  until  the  War 

299 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

period  the  British  Army  was  provided  exclusively  with 
biplanes.  Even  prior  to  this  the  popularity  of  the 
monoplane  had  begun  to  wane.  At  the  Olympia  Aero 
Show  in  March,  1913,  biplanes  for  the  first  time 
outnumbered  the  '  single-deckers  '  (as  the  Germans 
call  monoplanes);  which  had  the  effect  of  reducing  the 
wing-loading.  In  the  case  of  the  biplanes  exhibited 
this  averaged  about  4^  Ibs.  per  square  foot,  while  in 
the  case  of  the  monoplanes  in  the  same  exhibition  the 
lowest  was  5^  Ibs.,  and  the  highest  over  8|  Ibs.  per 
square  foot  of  area.  It  may  here  be  mentioned  that  it 
was  not  until  the  War  period  that  the  importance  of 
loading  per  horse-power  was  recognised  as  the  true 
criterion  of  aeroplane  efficiency,  far  greater  interest 
being  displayed  in  the  amount  of  weight  borne  per 
unit  area  of  wing. 

An  idea  of  the  state  of  development  arrived  at  about 
this  time  may  be  gained  from  the  fact  that  the  Com- 
mandant of  the  Military  Wing  of  the  Royal  Flying 
Corps  in  a  lecture  before  the  Royal  Aeronautical  Society 
read  in  February,  1913,  asked  for  single-seater  scout 
aeroplanes  with  a  speed  of  90  miles  an  hour  and  a 
landing  speed  of  45  miles  an  hour — a  performance 
which  even  two  years  later  would  have  been  considered 
modest  in  the  extreme.  It  serves  to  show  that,  although 
higher  performances  were  put  up  by  individual  machines 
on  occasion,  the  general  development  had  not  yet  reached 
the  stage  when  such  performances  could  be  obtained 
in  machines  suitable  for  military  purposes.  So  far  as 
seaplanes  were  concerned,  up  to  the  beginning  of  1913 
little  attempt  had  been  made  to  study  the  novel  problems 
involved,  and  the  bulk  of  the  machines  at  the  Monaco 
Meeting  in  April,  1913,  for  instance,  consisted  of  land 

300 


PROGRESS  ON  STANDARDISED  LINES 

machines  fitted  with  floats,  in  many  cases  of  a  most 
primitive  nature,  without  other  alterations.  Most  of 
those  which  succeeded  in  leaving  the  water  did  so 
through  sheer  pull  of  engine  power;  while  practically 
all  were  incapable  of  getting  off  except  in  a  fair  sea, 
which  enabled  the  pilot  to  jump  the  machine  into  the 
air  across  the  trough  between  two  waves.  Stability 
problems  had  not  yet  been  considered,  and  in  only  one 
or  two  cases  was  fin  area  added  at  the  rear  high  up,  to 
counterbalance  the  effect  of  the  floats  low  down  in  front. 
Both  twin  and  single-float  machines  were  used,  while 
the  flying  boat  was  only  just  beginning  to  come  into 
being  from  the  workshops  of  Sopwith  in  Great  Britain, 
Borel-Denhaut  in  France,  and  Curtiss  in  America. 
In  view  of  the  approaching  importance  of  amphibious 
seaplanes,  mention  should  be  made  of  the  flying  boat 
(or  *  bat  boat '  as  it  was  called,  following  Rudyard 
Kipling)  which  was  built  by  Sopwith  in  1913  with  a 
wheeled  landing-carriage  which  could  be  wound  up 
above  the  bottom  surface  of  the  boat  so  as  to  be  out  of 
the  way  when  alighting  on  water. 

During  1913  the  (at  one  time  almost  universal) 
practice  originated  by  the  Wright  Brothers,  of  warping 
the  wings  for  lateral  stability,  began  to  die  out  and  the 
bulk  of  aeroplanes  began  to  be  fitted  with  flaps 
(or  '  ailerons  ')  instead.  This  was  a  distinct  change 
for  the  better,  as  continually  warping  the  wings  by 
bending  down  the  extremities  of  the  rear  spars  was 
bound  in  time  to  produce  *  fatigue  *  in  that  member 
and  lead  to  breakage;  and  the  practice  became  completely 
obsolete  during  the  next  two  or  three  years. 

The  Gordon-Bennett  race  of  September,  1913, 
was  again  won  by  a  Deperdussin  machine,  somewhat 

301 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

similar  to  that  of  the  previous  year,  but  with  exceedingly 
small  wings,  only  107  square  feet  in  area.  The  shape 
of  these  wings  was  instructive  as  showing  how  what, 
from  the  general  utility  point  of  view,  may  be  disad- 
vantageous can,  for  a  special  purpose,  be  turned  to 
account.  With  a  span  of  2 1  feet,  the  chord  was  5  feet, 
giving  the  inefficient  *  aspect  ratio  '  of  slightly  over  4 
to  i  only.  The  object  of  this  was  to  reduce  the  lift, 
and  therefore  the  resistance,  to  as  low  a  point  as  possible. 
The  total  weight  was  1,500  Ibs.,  giving  a  wing-loading 
of  14  Ibs.  per  square  foot — a  hitherto  undreamt-of 
figure.  The  result  was  that  the  machine  took  an 
enormously  long  run  before  starting;  and  after  touching 
the  ground  on  landing  ran  for  nearly  a  mile  before 
stopping;  but  she  beat  all  records  by  attaining  a  speed  of 
126  miles  per  hour.  Where  this  performance  is 
mainly  interesting  is  in  contrast  to  the  machines  of 
1920,  which  with  an  even  higher  speed  capacity  would 
yet  be  able  to  land  at  not  more  than  40  or  50  miles  per 
hour,  and  would  be  thoroughly  efficient  flying  machines. 
The  Rheims  Aviation  Meeting,  at  which  the  Gordon- 
Bennett  race  was  flown,  also  saw  the  first  appearance 
of  the  Morane  '  Parasol  *  monoplane.  The  Morane 
monoplane  had  been  for  some  time  an  interesting 
machine  as  being  the  only  type  which  had  no  fixed 
surface  in  rear  to  give  automatic  stability,  the  movable 
elevator  being  balanced  through  being  hinged  about 
one-third  of  the  way  back  from  the  front  edge.  This 
made  the  machine  difficult  to  fly  except  in  the  hands 
of  experts,  but  it  was  very  quick  and  handy  on  the 
controls  and  therefore  useful  for  racing  purposes.  In 
the  '  Parasol  *  the  modification  was  introduced  of 
raising  the  wing  above  the  body,  the  pilot  looking  out 

302 


c 

§ 

"o. 

2 


PROGRESS  ON  STANDARDISED  LINES 

beneath  it,  in  order  to  give  as  good  a  view  as 
possible. 

Before  passing  to  the  year  1914  mention  should  be 
made  of  the  feat  performed  by  Nesteroff,  a  Russian, 
and  Pegoud,  a  French  pilot,  who  were  the  first  to 
demonstrate  the  possibilities  of  flying  upside-down 
and  looping  the  loop.  Though  perhaps  not  coming 
strictly  within  the  purview  of  a  chapter  on  design 
(though  certain  alterations  were  made  to  the  top  wing- 
bracing  of  the  machine  for  this  purpose)  this  performance 
was  of  extreme  importance  to  the  development  of 
aviation  by  showing  the  possibility  of  recovering,  given 
reasonable  height,  from  any  position  in  the  air;  which 
led  designers  to  consider  the  extra  stresses  to  which  an 
aeroplane  might  be  subjected  and  to  take  steps  to  provide 
for  them  by  increasing  strength  where  necessary. 

When  the  year  1914  opened  a  speed  of  126  miles 
per  hour  had  been  attained  and  a  height  of  19,600  feet 
had  been  reached.  The  Sopwith  and  Avro  (the  fore- 
runner of  the  famous  training  machine  of  the  War 
period)  were  probably  the  two  leading  tractor  biplanes 
of  the  world,  both  two-seaters  with  a  speed  variation 
from  40  miles  per  hour  up  to  some  90  miles  per  hour 
with  80  horse-power  engines.  The  French  were  still 
pinning  their  faith  mainly  to  monoplanes,  while  the 
Germans  were  beginning  to  come  into  prominence 
with  both  monoplanes  and  biplanes  of  the  *  Taube  ' 
type.  These  had  wings  swept  backward  and  also 
upturned  at  the  wing-tips  which,  though  it  gave  a 
certain  measure  of  automatic  stability,  rendered  the 
machine  somewhat  clumsy  in  the  air,  and  their  per- 
formances were  not  on  the  whole  as  high  as  those  of 
either  France  or  Great  Britain. 

303 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

Early  in  1914  it  became  known  that  the  experimental 
work  of  Edward  Busk — who  was  so  lamentably  killed 
during  an  experimental  flight  later  in  the  year — 
following  upon  the  researches  of  Bairstow  and  others 
had  resulted  in  the  production  at  the  Royal  Aircraft 
Factory  at  Farnborough  of  a  truly  automatically  stable 
aeroplane.  This  was  the  *  R.E.'  (Reconnaissance 
Experimental),  a  development  of  the  B.E.  which  has 
already  been  referred  to.  The  remarkable  feature  of 
this  design  was  that  there  was  no  particular  device  to 
which  one  could  point  out  as  the  cause  of  the  stability. 
The  stable  result  was  attained  simply  by  detailed  design 
of  each  part  of  the  aeroplane,  with  due  regard  to  its 
relation  to,  and  effect  on,  other  parts  in  the  air.  Weights 
and  areas  were  so  nicely  arranged  that  under  practically 
any  conditions  the  machine  tended  to  right  itself.  It 
did  not,  therefore,  claim  to  be  a  machine  which  it  was 
impossible  to  upset,  but  one  which  if  left  to  itself 
would  tend  to  right  itself  from  whatever  direction  a  gust 
might  come.  When  the  principles  were  extended  to 
the  *  B.E.  2c  '  type  (largely  used  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
War)  the  latter  machine,  if  the  engine  were  switched 
off  at  a  height  of  not  less  than  i  ,000  feet  above  the  ground, 
would  after  a  few  moments  assume  its  correct  gliding 
angle  and  glide  down  to  the  ground. 

The  Paris  Aero  Salon  of  December,  1913,  had 
been  remarkable  chiefly  for  the  large  number  of  machines 
of  which  the  chassis  and  bodywork  had  been  constructed 
of  steel-tubing;  for  the  excess  of  monoplanes  over 
biplanes;  and  (in  the  latter)  predominance  of  *  pusher  ' 
machines  (with  propeller  in  rear  of  the  main  planes) 
compared  with  the  growing  British  preference  for 
'  tractors  '  (with  air  screw  in  front).  Incidentally,  the 

304 


PROGRESS  ON  STANDARDISED  LINES 

Maurice  Farman,  the  last  relic  of  the  old  type  box-kite 
with  elevator  in  front  appeared  shorn  of  this  prefix,  and 
became  known  as  the  '  short-horn  *  in  contradistinction 
to  its  front-elevatored  predecessor  which,  owing  to 
its  general  reliability  and  easy  flying  capabilities,  had 
long  been  affectionately  called  the  *  mechanical  cow.1 
The  1913  Salon  also  saw  some  lingering  attempts  at 
attaining  automatic  stability  by  pendulum  and  other 
freak  devices. 

Apart  from  the  appearance  of  *  R.E.I/  perhaps  the 
most  notable  development  towards  the  end  of  1913 
was  the  appearance  of  the  Sopwith  *  Tabloid  '  tractor 
biplane.  This  single-seater  machine,  evolved  from  the 
two-seater  previously  referred  to,  fitted  with  a  Gnome 
engine  of  80  horse-power,  had  the,  for  those  days, 
remarkable  speed  of  92  miles  an  hour;  while  a  still 
more  notable  feature  was  that  it  could  remain  in  level 
flight  at  not  more  than  37  miles  per  hour.  This  machine 
is  of  particular  importance  because  it  was  the  prototype 
and  forerunner  of  the  successive  designs  of  single- 
seater  scout  fighting  machines  which  were  used  so 
extensively  from  1914  to  1918.  It  was  also  probably 
the  first  machine  to  be  capable  of  reaching  a  height  of 
1,000  feet  within  one  minute.  It  was  closely  followed 
by  the  *  Bristol  Bullet,'  which  was  exhibited  at  the 
Olympia  Aero  Show  of  March,  1914.  This  last 
pre-war  show  was  mainly  remarkable  for  the  good 
workmanship  displayed — rather  than  for  any  distinct 
advance  in  design.  In  fact,  there  was  a  notable  diversity 
in  the  types  displayed,  but  in  detailed  design  consider- 
able improvements  were  to  be  seen,  such  as  the  general 
adoption  of  stranded  steel  cable  in  place  of  piano  wire 
for  the  main  bracing. 

305 


IV 

THE    WAR    PERIOD 

UP  to  this  point  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  give 
some  idea  of  the  progress  that  was  made  during  the 
eleven  years  that  had  elapsed  since  the  days  of  the 
Wrights'  first  flights.  Much  advance  had  been  made 
and  aeroplanes  had  settled  down,  superficially  at  any 
rate,  into  more  or  less  standardised  forms  in  three  main 
types — tractor  monoplanes,  tractor  biplanes,  and  pusher 
biplanes.  Through  the  application  of  the  results  of 
experiments  with  models  in  wind  tunnels  to  full-scale 
machines,  considerable  improvements  had  been  made  in 
the  design  of  wing  sections,  which  had  greatly  increased 
the  efficiency  of  aeroplanes  by  raising  the  amount  of 
4  lift '  obtained  from  the  wing  compared  with  the  *  drag  ' 
(or  resistance  to  forward  motion)  which  the  same  wing 
would  cause.  In  the  same  way  the  shape  of  bodies, 
interplane  struts,  etc.,  had  been  improved  to  be  of  better 
stream-line  shape,  for  the  further  reduction  of  resistance ; 
while  the  problems  of  stability  were  beginning  to  be 
tolerably  well  understood.  Records  (for  what  they  are 
worth)  stood  at  2 1,000  feet  as  far  as  height  was  concerned, 
126  miles  per  hour  for  speed,  and  24  hours  duration. 
That  there  was  considerable  room  for  development  is, 
however,  evidenced  by  a  statement  made  by  the  late 
B.  C.  Hucks  (the  famous  pilot)  in  the  course  of  an 
address  delivered  before  the  Royal  Aeronautical  Society 

306 


THE  WAR  PERIOD 

in  July,  1914.  'I  consider,'  he  said,  *  that  the  present 
day  standard  of  flying  is  due  far  more  to  the  improvement 
in  piloting  than  to  the  improvement  in  machines.  .  .  . 
I  consider  those  (early  1914)  machines  are  only  slight 
improvements  on  the  machines  of  three  years  ago,  and 
yet  they  are  put  through  evolutions  which,  at  that  time, 
were  not  even  dreamed  of.  I  can  take  a  good  example 
of  the  way  improvement  in  piloting  has  outdistanced 
improvement  in  machines — in  the  case  of  myself,  my 
'  looping  '  Bleriot  Most  of  you  know  that  there  is 
very  little  difference  between  that  machine  and  the 
50  horse-power  Bleriot  of  three  years  ago.'  This  state- 
ment was,  of  course,  to  some  extent  an  exaggeration 
and  was  by  no  means  agreed  with  by  designers,  but 
there  was  at  the  same  time  a  germ  of  truth  in  it.  There 
is  at  any  rate  little  doubt  that  the  theory  and  practice 
of  aeroplane  design  made  far  greater  strides  towards 
becoming  an  exact  science  during  the  four  years  of 
War  than  it  had  done  during  the  six  or  seven  years 
preceding  it. 

It  is  impossible  in  the  space  at  disposal  to  treat  of 
this  development  even  with  the  meagre  amount  of 
detail  that  has  been  possible  while  covering  the  *  settling 
down'  period  from  1911  to  1914,  and  it  is  proposed, 
therefore,  to  indicate  the  improvements  by  sketching 
briefly  the  more  noticeable  difference  in  various  respects 
between  the  average  machine  of  1914  and  a  similar 
machine  of  1918. 

In  the  first  place,  it  was  soon  found  that  it  was 
possible  to  obtain  greater  efficiency  and,  in  particular, 
higher  speeds,  from  tractor  machines  than  from  pusher 
machines  with  the  air  screw  behind  the  main  planes. 
This  was  for  a  variety  of  reasons  connected  with  the 

307 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

efficiency  of  propellers  and  the  possibility  of  reducing 
resistance  to  a  greater  extent  in  tractor  machines  by 
using  a  '  stream-line  '  fuselage  (or  body)  to  connect  the 
main  planes  with  the  tail.  Full  advantage  of  this  could 
not  be  taken,  however,  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  fixing 
a  machine-gun  in  a  forward  direction  owing  to  the 
presence  of  the  propeller.  This  was  finally  overcome 
by  an  ingenious  device  (known  as  an  *  Interrupter 
gear  ')  which  allowed  the  gun  to  fire  only  when  none  of 
the  propeller  blades  was  passing  in  front  of  the  muzzle. 
The  monoplane  gradually  fell  into  desuetude,  mainly 
owing  to  the  difficulty  of  making  that  type  adequately 
strong  without  it  becoming  prohibitively  heavy,  and 
also  because  of  its  high  landing  speed  and  general  lack 
of  manoeuvrability.  The  triplane  was  also  little  used 
except  in  one  or  two  instances,  and,  practically  speaking, 
every  machine  was  of  the  biplane  tractor  type. 

A  careful  consideration  of  the  salient  features 
leading  to  maximum  efficiency  in  aeroplanes — par- 
ticularly in  regard  to  speed  and  climb,  which  were  the 
two  most  important  military  requirements — showed 
that  a  vital  feature  was  the  reduction  in  the  amount  of 
weight  lifted  per  horse-power  employed;  which  in 
1914  averaged  from  20  to  25  Ibs.  This  was  effected 
both  by  gradual  increase  in  the  power  and  size  of  the 
engines  used  and  by  great  improvement  in  their  detailed 
design  (by  increasing  compression  ratio  and  saving 
weight  whenever  possible);  with  the  result  that  the 
motive  power  of  single-seater  aeroplanes  rose  from  80 
and  100  horse-power  in  1914  to  an  average  of  200  to 
300  horse-power,  while  the  actual  weight  of  the  engine 
fell  from  3^-4  Ibs.  per  horse-power  to  an  average  of  i\ 
Ibs.  per  horse-power.  This  meant  that  while  a  pre-war 

308 


THE  WAR  PERIOD 

engine  of  100  horse-power  would  weigh  some  400  Ibs., 
the  1918  engine  developing  three  times  the  power 
would  have  less  than  double  the  weight.  The  result 
of  this  improvement  was  that  a  scout  aeroplane  at  the 
time  of  the  Armistice  would  have  I  horse-power  for 
every  8  Ibs.  of  weight  lifted,  compared  with  the  20  or 
25  Ibs.  of  its  1914  predecessors.  This  produced  a 
considerable  increase  in  the  rate  of  climb,  a  good  post- 
war machine  being  able  to  reach  10,000  feet  in  about 
5  minutes  and  20,000  feet  in  under  half  an  hour.  The 
loading  per  square  foot  was  also  considerably  increased; 
this  being  rendered  possible  both  by  improvement  in 
the  design  of  wing  sections  and  by  more  scientific 
construction  giving  increased  strength.  It  will  be 
remembered  that  in  the  machine  of  the  very  early  period 
each  square  foot  of  surface  had  only  to  lift  a  weight  of 
some  1 1  to  2  Ibs.,  which  by  1914  had  been  increased 
to  about  4  Ibs.  By  1918  aeroplanes  habitually  had  a 
loading  of  8  Ibs.  or  more  per  square  foot  of  area;  which 
resulted  in  great  increase  in  speed.  Although  a  speed 
of  126  miles  per  hour  had  been  attained  by  a  specially 
designed  racing  machine  over  a  short  distance  in  1914, 
the  average  at  that  period  little  exceeded,  if  at  all,  100 
miles  per  hour;  whereas  in  1918  speeds  of  130  miles 
per  hour  had  become  a  commonplace,  and  shortly  after- 
wards a  speed  of  over  166  miles  an  hour  was  achieved. 

In  another  direction,  also,  that  of  size,  great  develop- 
ments were  made.  Before  the  War  a  few  machines 
fitted  with  more  than  one  engine  had  been  built  (the 
first  being  a  triple  Gnome-engined  biplane  built  by 
Messrs  Short  Bros,  at  Eastchurch  in  1913),  but  none 
of  large  size  had  been  successfully  produced,  the  total 
weight  probably  in  no  case  exceeding  about  2  tons.  In 

309 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

1916,  however,  the  twin  engine  Handley-Page  biplane 
was  produced,  to  be  followed  by  others  both  in  this 
country  and  abroad,  which  represented  a  very  great 
increase  in  size  and,  consequently,  load-carrying  capacity. 
By  the  end  of  the  War  period  several  types  were  in 
existence  weighing  a  total  of  10  tons  when  fully  loaded, 
of  which  some  4  tons  or  more  represented  *  useful 
load  *  available  for  crew,  fuel,  and  bombs  or  passengers. 
This  was  attained  through  very  careful  attention  to 
detailed  design,  which  showed  that  the  material  could 
be  employed  more  efficiently  as  size  increased,  and  was 
also  due  to  the  fact  that  a  large  machine  was  not  liable 
to  be  put  through  the  same  evolutions  as  a  small  machine, 
and  therefore  could  safely  be  built  with  a  lower  factor 
of  safety.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  a  wing  section  which 
is  adopted  for  carrying  heavy  loads  usually  has  also  a 
somewhat  low  lift  to  drag  ratio,  and  is  not  therefore 
productive  of  high  speed,  these  machines  are  not  as 
fast  as  light  scouts;  but,  nevertheless,  they  proved 
themselves  capable  of  achieving  speeds  of  100  miles  an 
hour  or  more  in  some  cases;  which  was  faster  than  the 
average  small  machine  of  1914. 

In  one  respect  the  development  during  the  War 
may  perhaps  have  proved  to  be  somewhat  disappointing, 
as  it  might  have  been  expected  that  great  improvements 
would  be  effected  in  metal  construction,  leading  almost 
to  the  abolition  of  wooden  structures.  Although, 
however,  a  good  deal  of  experimental  work  was  done 
which  resulted  in  overcoming  at  any  rate  the  worst  of 
the  difficulties,  metal-built  machines  were  little  used 
(except  to  a  certain  extent  in  Germany)  chiefly  on  account 
of  the  need  for  rapid  production  and  the  danger  of 
delay  resulting  from  switching  over  from  known  and 

310 


II- 


THE  WAR  PERIOD 

tried  methods  to  experimental  types  of  construction. 
The  Germans  constructed  some  large  machines,  such 
as  the  giant  Siemens- Schukhert  machine,  entirely  of 
metal  except  for  the  wing  covering,  while  the  Fokker 
and  Junker  firms  about  the  time  of  the  Armistice  in 
1918  both  produced  monoplanes  with  very  deep  all-metal 
wings  (including  the  covering)  which  were  entirely 
unstayed  externally,  depending  for  their  strength  on 
internal  bracing.  In  Great  Britain  cable  bracing  gave 
place  to  a  great  extent  to  *  stream-line  wires/  which  are 
steel  rods  rolled  to  a  more  or  less  oval  section,  while 
tie-rods  were  also  extensively  used  for  the  internal 
bracing  of  the  wings.  Great  developments  in  the 
economical  use  of  material  were  also  made  in  the  direction 
of  using  built-up  main  spars  for  the  wings  and  inter- 
plane  struts;  spars  composed  of  a  series  of  layers  (or 
1  laminations ')  of  different  pieces  of  wood  also  being  used. 

Apart  from  the  metallic  construction  of  aeroplanes 
an  enormous  amount  of  work  was  done  in  the  testing 
of  different  steels  and  light  alloys  for  use  in  engines, 
and  by  the  end  of  the  War  period  a  number  of  aircraft 
engines  were  in  use  of  which  the  pistons  and  other  parts 
were  of  such  alloys;  the  chief  difficulty  having  been 
not  so  much  in  the  design  as  in  the  successful  heat- 
treatment  and  casting  of  the  metal. 

An  important  development  in  connection  with  the 
inspection  and  testing  of  aircraft  parts,  particularly  in 
the  case  of  metal,  was  the  experimental  application  of 
X-ray  photography,  which  showed  up  latent  defects, 
both  in  the  material  and  in  manufacture,  which  would 
otherwise  have  passed  unnoticed.  This  method  was 
also  used  to  test  the  penetration  of  glue  into  the  wood 
on  each  side  of  joints,  so  giving  a  measure  of  the  strength; 
H.A.  311  X 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

and  for  the  effect  of  '  doping  '  the  wings,  dope  being 
a  film  (of  cellulose  acetate  dissolved  in  acetone  with 
other  chemicals)  applied  to  the  covering  of  wings  and 
bodies  to  render  the  linen  taut  and  weatherproof,  besides 
giving  it  a  smooth  surface  for  the  lessening  of  *  skin 
friction  '  when  passing  rapidly  through  the  air. 

An  important  result  of  this  experimental  work  was 
that  it  in  many  cases  enabled  designers  to  produce 
aeroplane  parts  from  less  costly  material  than  had 
previously  been  considered  necessary,  without  impairing 
the  strength.  It  may  be  mentioned  that  it  was  found 
undesirable  to  use  welded  joints  on  aircraft  in  any  part 
where  the  material  is  subject  to  a  tensile  or  bending 
load,  owing  to  the  danger  resulting  from  bad  workman- 
ship causing  the  material  to  become  brittle — an  effect 
which  cannot  be  discovered  except  by  cutting  through 
the  weld,  which,  of  course,  involves  a  test  to  destruction. 
Written,  as  it  has  been,  in  August,  1920,  it  is  impossible 
in  this  chapter  to  give  any  conception  of  how  the  develop- 
ments of  War  will  be  applied  to  commercial  aeroplanes, 
as  few  truly  commercial  machines  have  yet  been  designed, 
and  even  those  still  show  distinct  traces  of  the  survival 
of  war  mentality.  When,  however,  the  inevitable 
recasting  of  ideas  arrives,  it  will  become  evident,  what- 
ever the  apparent  modification  in  the  relative  importance 
of  different  aspects  of  design,  that  enormous  advances 
were  made  under  the  impetus  of  War  which  have  left 
an  indelible  mark  on  progress. 

We  have,  during  the  seventeen  years  since  aeroplanes 
first  took  the  air,  seen  them  grow  from  tentative 
experimental  structures  of  unknown  and  unknowable 
performance  to  highly  scientific  products,  of  which  not 
only  the  performances  (in  speed,  load-carrying  capacity, 

312 


THE  WAR  PERIOD 

and  climb)  are  known,  but  of  which  the  precise  strength 
and  degree  of  stability  can  be  forecast  with  some  accuracy 
on  the  drawing  board.  For  the  rest,  with  the  future 
lies — apart  from  some  revolutionary  change  in  funda- 
mental design — the  steady  development  of  a  now  well- 
tried  and  well-found  engineering  structure. 


PART  III 
AEROSTATICS 


BEGINNINGS 

FRANCESCO  LANA,  with  his  *  aerial  ship/  stands  as  one 
of  the  first  great  exponents  of  aerostatics;  up  to  the 
time  of  the  Mongolfier  and  Charles  balloon  experiments, 
aerostatic  and  aerodynamic  research  are  so  inextricably 
intermingled  that  it  has  been  thought  well  to  treat  of 
them  as  one,  and  thus  the  work  of  Lana,  Veranzio  and 
his  parachute,  Guzman's  frauds,  and  the  like,  have 
already  been  sketched.  In  connection  with  Guzman, 
Hildebrandt  states  in  his  Airships  Past  and  Present^  a 
fairly  exhaustive  treatise  on  the  subject  up  to  1906, 
the  year  of  its  publication,  that  there  were  two  inventors 
—or  charlatans — Lorenzo  de  Guzman  and  a  monk 
Bartolemeo  Laurenzo,  the  former  of  whom  constructed 
an  unsuccessful  airship  out  of  a  wooden  basket  covered 
with  paper,  while  the  latter  made  certain  experiments 
with  a  machine  of  which  no  description  remains.  A 
third  de  Guzman,  some  twenty-five  years  later,  announced 
that  he  had  constructed  a  flying  machine,  with  which 
he  proposed  to  fly  from  a  tower  to  prove  his  success 
to  the  public.  The  lack  of  record  of  any  fatal  accident 
overtaking  him  about  that  time  seems  to  show  that  the 
experiment  was  not  carried  out. 

Galien,  a  French  monk,  published  a  book  L'art  dc 
naviguer  dans  fair  in  1757,  in  which  it  was  conjectured 
that  the  air  at  high  levels  was  lighter  than  that  immediately 

317 


A  HISTORY  OP  AERONAUTICS 

over  the  surface  of  the  earth.  Galien  proposed  to  bring 
down  the  upper  layers  of  air  and  with  them  fill  a  vessel, 
which  by  Archimidean  principle  would  rise  through  the 
heavier  atmosphere.  If  one  went  high  enough,  said 
Galien,  the  air  would  be  two  thousand  times  as  light 
as  water,  and  it  would  be  possible  to  construct  an 
airship,  with  this  light  air  as  lifting  factor,  which  should 
be  as  large  as  the  town  of  Avignon,  and  carry  four 
million  passengers  with  their  baggage.  How  this  high 
air  was  to  be  obtained  is  matter  for  conjecture — Galien 
seems  to  have  thought  in  a  vicious  circle,  in  which  the 
vessel  that  must  rise  to  obtain  the  light  air  must  first 
be  filled  with  it  in  order  to  rise. 

Cavendish's  discovery  of  hydrogen  in  1776  set  men 
thinking,  and  soon  a  certain  Doctor  Black  was  suggesting 
that  vessels  might  be  filled  with  hydrogen,  in  order  that 
they  might  rise  in  the  air.  Black,  however,  did  not  get 
beyond  suggestion;  it  was  Leo  Cavallo  who  first  made 
experiments  with  hydrogen,  beginning  with  filling  soap 
bubbles,  and  passing  on  to  bladders  and  special  paper 
bags.  In  these  latter  the  gas  escaped,  and  Cavallo 
was  about  to  try  goldbeaters'  skin  at  the  time  that  the 
Mongolfiers  came  into  the  field  with  their  hot  air  balloon. 

Joseph  and  Stephen  Mongolfier,  sons  of  a  wealthy 
French  paper  manufacturer,  carried  out  many  experi- 
ments in  physics,  and  Joseph  interested  himself  in  the 
study  of  aeronautics  some  time  before  the  first  balloon 
was  constructed  by  the  brothers— he  is  said  to  have 
made  a  parachute  descent  from  the  roof  of  his  house 
as  early  as  1771,  but  of  this  there  is  no  proof.  Galien's 
idea,  together  with  study  of  the  movement  of  clouds, 
gave  Joseph  some  hope  of  achieving  aerostation  through 
Galien's  schemes,  and  the  first  experiments  were  made 

318 


BEGINNINGS 

by  passing  steam  into  a  receiver,  which,  of  course,  tended 
to  rise — but  the  rapid  condensation  of  the  steam 
prevented  the  receiver  from  more  than  threatening 
ascent.  The  experiments  were  continued  with  smoke, 
which  produced  only  a  slightly  better  effect,  and, 
moreover,  the  paper  bag  into  which  the  smoke  was 
induced  permitted  of  escape  through  its  pores;  finding 
this  method  a  failure  the  brothers  desisted  until 
Priestley's  work  became  known  to  them,  and  they 
conceived  the  use  of  hydrogen  as  a  lifting  factor.  Trying 
this  with  paper  bags,  they  found  that  the  hydrogen 
escaped  through  the  pores  of  the  paper. 

Their  first  balloon,  made  of  paper,  reverted  to  the 
hot-air  principle;  they  lighted  a  fire  of  wool  and  wet 
straw  under  the  balloon — and  as  a  matter  of  course  the 
balloon  took  fire  after  very  little  experiment;  thereupon 
they  constructed  a  second,  having  a  capacity  of  700 
cubic  feet,  and  this  rose  to  a  height  of  over  1,000  feet. 
Such  a  success  gave  them  confidence,  and  they  gave  their 
first  public  exhibition  on  June  ^th,  1783,  with  a  balloon 
constructed  of  paper  and  of  a  circumference  of  1 1 2 
feet.  A  fire  was  lighted  under  this  balloon,  which,  after 
rising  to  a  height  of  1,000  feet,  descended  through  the 
cooling  of  the  air  inside  a  matter  of  ten  minutes.  At 
this  the  Academic  des  Sciences  invited  the  brothers  to 
conduct  experiments  in  Paris. 

The  Mongolfiers  were  undoubtedly  first  to  send 
up  balloons,  but  other  experimenters  were  not  far 
behind  them,  and  before  they  could  get  to  Paris  in 
response  to  their  invitation,  Charles,  a  prominent 
physicist  of  those  days,  had  constructed  a  balloon  of 
silk,  which  he  proofed  against  escape  of  gas  with  rubber 
— the  Roberts  had  just  succeeded  in  dissolving  this 

3*9 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

substance  to  permit  of  making  a  suitable  coating  for 
the  silk.  With  a  quarter  of  a  ton  of  sulphuric  acid,  and 
half  a  ton  of  iron  filings  and  turnings,  sufficient  hydrogen 
was  generated  in  four  days  to  fill  Charles's  balloon, 
which  went  up  on  August  29th,  1783.  Although  the 
day  was  wet,  Paris  turned  out  to  the  number  of  over 
300,000  in  the  Champs  de  Mars,  and  cannon  were  fired 
to  announce  the  ascent  of  the  balloon.  This,  rising 
very  rapidly,  disappeared  amid  the  rain  clouds,  but, 
probably  bursting  through  no  outlet  being  provided 
to  compensate  for  the  escape  of  gas,  fell  soon  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Paris.  Here  peasants,  ascribing  evil 
supernatural  influence  to  the  fall  of  such  a  thing  from 
nowhere,  went  at  it  with  the  implements  of  their  craft 
— forks,  hoes,  and  the  like — and  maltreated  it  severely, 
finally  attaching  it  to  a  horse's  tail  and  dragging  it 
about  until  it  was  mere  rag  and  scrap. 

Meanwhile,  Joseph  Mongolfier,  having  come  to 
Paris,  set  about  the  construction  of  a  balloon  out  of  linen ; 
this  was  in  three  diverse  sections,  the  top  being  a  cone 
30  feet  in  depth,  the  middle  a  cylinder  42  feet  in  diameter 
by  26  feet  in  depth,  and  the  bottom  another  cone  20 
feet  in  depth  from  junction  with  the  cylindrical  portion 
to  its  point.  The  balloon  was  both  lined  and  covered 
with  paper,  decorated  in  blue  and  gold.  Before  ever 
an  ascent  could  be  attempted  this  ambitious  balloon 
was  caught  in  a  heavy  rainstorm  which  reduced  its 
paper  covering  to  pulp  and  tore  the  linen  at  its  seams, 
so  that  a  supervening  strong  wind  tore  the  whole  thing 
to  shreds. 

Mongolfier's  next  balloon  was  spherical,  having  a 
capacity  of  52,000  cubic  feet.  It  was  made  from  water- 
proofed linen,  and  on  September  I9th,  1783,  it  made 

320 


BEGINNINGS 

an  ascent  for  the  palace  courtyard  at  Versailles,  taking 
up  as  passengers  a  cock,  a  sheep,  and  a  duck.  A  rent 
at  the  top  of  the  balloon  caused  it  to  descend  within 
eight  minutes,  and  the  duck  and  sheep  were  found 
none  the  worse  for  being  the  first  living  things  to  leave 
the  earth  in  a  balloon,  but  the  cock,  evidently  suffering, 
was  thought  to  have  been  affected  by  the  rarefaction 
of  the  atmosphere  at  the  tremendous  height  reached — 
for  at  that  time  the  general  opinion  was  that  the  atmo- 
sphere did  not  extend  more  than  four  or  five  miles 
above  the  earth's  surface.  It  transpired  later  that  the 
sheep  had  trampled  on  the  cock,  causing  more  solid 
injury  than  any  that  might  be  inflicted  by  rarefied 
air  in  an  eight-minute  ascent  and  descent  of  a 
balloon. 

For  achieving  this  flight  Joseph  Mongolfier  received 
from  the  King  of  France  a  pension  of  £40,  while  Stephen 
was  given  the  Order  of  St  Michael,  and  a  patent  of 
nobility  was  granted  to  their  father.  They  were  made 
members  of  the  Legion  d'Honneur,  and  a  scientific 
deputation,  of  which  Faujas  de  Saint-Fond,  who  had 
raised  the  funds  with  which  Charles's  hydrogen  balloon 
was  constructed,  presented  to  Stephen  Mongolfier  a 
gold  medal  struck  in  honour  of  his  aerial  conquest. 
Since  Joseph  appears  to  have  had  quite  as  much 
share  in  the  success  as  Stephen,  the  presentation  of 
the  medal  to  one  brother  only  was  in  questionable 
taste,  unless  it  was  intended  to  balance  Joseph's 
pension. 

Once  aerostation  had  been  proved  possible,  many 
people  began  the  construction  of  small  balloons — the 
whole  thing  was  regarded  as  a  matter  of  spectacles  and 
as  a  form  of  amusement  by  the  great  majority.  A  certain 

321 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

Baron  de  Beaumanoir  made  the  first  balloon  of  gold- 
beaters' skin,  this  being  eighteen  inches  in  diameter, 
and  using  hydrogen  as  a  lifting  factor.  Few  people 
saw  any  possibilities  in  aerostation,  in  spite  of  the 
adventures  of  the  duck  and  sheep  and  cock;  voyages 
to  the  moon  were  talked  and  written,  and  there  was 
more  of  levity  than  seriousness  over  ballooning  as  a  rule. 
The  classic  retort  of  Benjamin  Franklin  stands  as  an 
exception  to  the  general  rule:  asked  what  was  the  use 
of  ballooning — '  What's  the  use  of  a  baby  ? '  he  countered, 
and  the  spirit  of  that  reply  brought  both  the  dirigible 
and  the  aeroplane  to  being,  later. 

The  next  noteworthy  balloon  was  one  by  Stephen 
Mongolfier,  designed  to  take  up  passengers,  and  there- 
fore of  rather  large  dimensions,  as  these  things  went  then . 
The  capacity  was  100,000  cubic  feet,  the  depth  being 
85  feet,  and  the  exterior  was  very  gaily  decorated.  A 
short,  cylindrical  opening  was  made  at  the  lower 
extremity,  and  under  this  a  fire-pan  was  suspended, 
above  the  passenger  car  of  the  balloon.  On  October 
1 5th,  1783,  Pilatre  de  Rozier  made  the  first  balloon 
ascent — but  the  balloon  was  held  captive,  and  only 
allowed  to  rise  to  a  height  of  80  feet.  But,  a  little  later 
in  1783,  Rozier  secured  the  honour  of  making  the 
first  ascent  in  a  free  balloon,  taking  up  with  him  the 
Marquis  d'Arlandes.  It  had  been  originally  intended 
that  two  criminals,  condemned  to  death,  should  risk 
their  lives  in  the  perilous  venture,  with  the  prospect  of 
a  free  pardon  if  they  made  a  safe  descent,  but  d'Arlandes 
got  the  royal  consent  to  accompany  Rozier,  and  the 
criminals  lost  their  chance.  Rozier  and  d'Arlandes 
made  a  voyage  lasting  for  twenty-five  minutes,  and,  on 
landing,  the  balloon  collapsed  with  such  rapidity  as 

322 


BEGINNINGS 

almost  to  suffocate  Rozier,  who,  however,  was  dragged 
out  to  safety  by  d'Arlandes.  This  first  aerostatic  journey 
took  place  on  November  2ist,  1783. 

Some  seven  months  later,  on  June  4th,  1784,  a 
Madame  Thible  ascended  in  a  free  balloon,  reaching  a 
height  of  9,000  feet,  and  making  a  journey  which 
lasted  for  forty-five  minutes — the  great  King  Gustavus 
of  Sweden  witnessed  this  ascent.  France  grew  used 
to  balloon  ascents  in  the  course  of  a  few  months,  in 
spite  of  the  brewing  of  such  a  storm  as  might  have  been 
calculated  to  wipe  out  all  but  purely  political  interests. 
Meanwhile,  interest  in  the  new  discovery  spread  across 
the  Channel,  and  on  September  I5th,  1784,  one  Vincent 
Lunardi  made  the  first  balloon  voyage  in  England, 
starting  from  the  Artillery  Ground  at  Chelsea,  with  a 
cat  and  dog  as  passengers,  and  landing  in  a  field  in  the 
parish  of  Standon,  near  Ware.  There  is  a  rather  rare 
book  which  gives  a  very  detailed  account  of  this  first 
ascent  in  England,  one  copy  of  which  is  in  the  library 
of  the  Royal  Aeronautical  Society;  the  venturesome 
Lunardi  won  a  greater  measure  of  fame  through  his 
exploit  than  did  Cody  for  his  infinitely  more  courageous 
and — from  a  scientific  point  of  view — valuable  first 
aeroplane  ascent  in  this  country. 

The  Mongolfier  type  of  balloon,  depending  on  hot 
air  for  its  lifting  power,  was  soon  realised  as  having 
dangerous  limitations.  There  was  always  a  possibility 
of  the  balloon  catching  fire  while  it  was  being  filled, 
and  on  landing  there  was  further  danger  from  the  hot 
pan  which  kept  up  the  supply  of  hot  air  on  the  voyage 
— the  collapsing  balloon  fell  on  the  pan,  inevitably. 
The  scientist  Saussure,  observing  the  filling  of  the 
balloons  very  carefully,  ascertained  that  it  was  rarefaction 

323 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

of  the  air  which  was  responsible  for  the  lifting  power, 
and  not  the  heat  in  itself,  and,  owing  to  the  rarefaction 
of  the  air  at  normal  temperature  at  great  heights  above 
the  earth,  the  limit  of  ascent  for  a  balloon  of  the  Mon- 
golfier  type  was  estimated  by  him  at  under  9,000  feet. 
Moreover,  since  the  amount  of  fuel  that  could  be  carried 
for  maintaining  the  heat  of  the  balloon  after  inflation 
was  subject  to  definite  limits,  prescribed  by  the  carrying 
capacity  of  the  balloon,  the  duration  of  the  journey  was 
necessarily  limited  just  as  strictly. 

These  considerations  tended  to  turn  the  minds  of 
those  interested  in  aerostation  to  consideration  of  the 
hydrogen  balloon  evolved  by  Professor  Charles. 
Certain  improvements  had  been  made  by  Charles 
since  his  first  construction;  he  employed  rubber-coated 
silk  in  the  construction  of  a  balloon  of  30  feet  diameter, 
and  provided  a  net  for  distributing  the  pressure  uniformly 
over  the  surface  of  the  envelope;  this  net  covered  the 
top  half  of  the  balloon,  and  from  its  lower  edge  dependent 
ropes  hung  to  join  on  a  wooden  ring,  from  which  the 
car  of  the  balloon  was  suspended — apart  from  the 
extension  of  the  net  so  as  to  cover  in  the  whole  of  the 
envelope,  the  spherical  balloon  of  to-day  is  virtually 
identical  with  that  of  Charles  in  its  method  of  construc- 
tion. He  introduced  the  valve  at  the  top  of  the  balloon, 
by  which  escape  of  gas  could  be  controlled,  operating 
his  valve  by  means  of  ropes  which  depended  to  the  car 
of  the  balloon,  and  he  also  inserted  a  tube,  of  about  7 
inches  diameter,  at  the  bottom  of  the  balloon,  not  only 
for  purposes  of  inflation,  but  also  to  provide  a  means 
of  escape  for  gas  in  case  of  expansion  due  to  atmospheric 
conditions. 

Sulphuric  acid  and  iron  filings  were  used  by  Charles 

324 


BEGINNINGS 

for  filling  his  balloon,  which  required  three  days  and 
three  nights  for  the  generation  of  its  14,000  cubic  feet 
of  hydrogen  gas.  The  inflation  was  completed  on 
December  ist,  1783,  and  the  fittings  carried  included 
a  barometer  and  a  grapnel  form  of  anchor.  In  addition 
to  this,  Charles  provided  the  first  *  ballon  sond£  *  in  the 
form  of  a  small  pilot  balloon  which  he  handed  to 
Mongolfier  to  launch  before  his  own  ascent,  in  order 
to  determine  the  direction  and  velocity  of  the  wind. 
It  was  a  graceful  compliment  to  his  rival,  and 
indicated  that,  although  they  were  both  working 
to  the  one  end,  their  rivalry  was  not  a  matter  of 
bitterness. 

Ascending  on  December  ist,  1783,  Charles  took 
with  him  one  of  the  brothers  Robert,  and  with  him 
made  the  record  journey  up  to  that  date,  covering  a  period 
of  three  and  three-quarter  hours,  in  which  time  they 
journeyed  some  forty  miles.  Robert  then  landed,  and 
Charles  ascended  again  alone,  reaching  such  a  height 
as  to  feel  the  effects  of  the  rarefaction  of  the  air,  this 
very  largely  due  to  the  rapidity  of  his  ascent.  Opening 
the  valve  at  the  top  of  the  balloon,  he  descended  thirty- 
five  minutes  after  leaving  Robert  behind,  and  came  to 
earth  a  few  miles  from  the  point  of  the  first  descent. 
His  discomfort  over  the  rapid  ascent  was  mainly  due 
to  the  fact  that,  when  Robert  landed,  he  forgot  to 
compensate  for  the  reduction  of  weight  by  taking  in 
further  ballast,  but  the  ascent  proved  the  value  of  the 
tube  at  the  bottom  of  the  balloon  envelope,  for  the  gas 
escaped  very  rapidly  in  that  second  ascent,  and,  but 
for  the  tube,  the  balloon  must  inevitably  have  burst  in 
the  air,  with  fatal  results  for  Charles. 

As  in  the  case  of  aeroplane  flight,  as  soon  as  the 

325 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

balloon  was  proved  practicable  the  flight  across  the 
English  Channel  was  talked  of,  and  Rozier,  who  had 
the  honour  of  the  first  flight,  announced  his  intention 
of  being  first  to  cross.  But  Blanchard,  who  had  an  idea 
for  a  *  flying  car,'  anticipated  him,  and  made  a  start 
from  Dover  on  January  7th,  1785,  taking  with  him  an 
American  doctor  named  Jeffries.  Blanchard  fitted  out 
his  craft  for  the  journey  very  thoroughly,  taking  pro- 
visions, oars,  and  even  wings,  for  propulsion  in  case  of 
need.  He  took  so  much,  in  fact,  that  as  soon  as  the 
balloon  lifted  clear  of  the  ground  the  whole  of  the 
ballast  had  to  be  jettisoned,  lest  the  balloon  should 
drop  into  the  sea.  Half-way  across  the  Channel  the 
sinking  of  the  balloon  warned  Blanchard  that  he  had 
to  part  with  more  than  ballast  to  accomplish  the  journey, 
and  all  the  equipment  went,  together  with  certain  books 
and  papers  that  were  on  board  the  car.  The  balloon 
looked  perilously  like  collapsing,  and  both  Blanchard 
and  Jeffries  began  to  undress  in  order  further  to  lighten 
their  craft — Jeffries  even  proposed  a  heroic  dive  to 
save  the  situation,  but  suddenly  the  balloon  rose 
sufficiently  to  clear  the  French  coast,  and  the  two 
voyagers  landed  at  a  point  near  Calais  in  the  Forest  of 
Guines,  where  a  marble  column  was  subsequently 
erected  to  commemorate  the  great  feat. 

Rozier,  although  not  first  across,  determined  to  be 
second,  and  for  that  purpose  he  constructed  a  balloon 
which  was  to  owe  its  buoyancy  to  a  combination  of  the 
hydrogen  and  hot  air  principles.  There  was  a  spherical 
hydrogen  balloon  above,  and  beneath  it  a  cylindrical 
container  which  could  be  filled  with  hot  air,  thus  com- 
pensating for  the  leakage  of  gas  from  the  hydrogen 
portion  of  the  balloon — regulating  the  heat  of  his  fire, 

326 


BEGINNINGS 

he  thought,  would  give  him  perfect  control  in  the 
matter  of  ascending  and  descending. 

On  July  1 6th,  1785,  a  favourable  breeze  gave 
Rozier  his  opportunity  of  starting  from  the  French 
coast,  and  with  a  passenger  aboard  he  cast  off  in  his 
balloon,  which  he  had  named  the  *  Aero-Mongolfiere.' 
There  was  a  rapid  rise  at  first,  and  then  for  a  time  the 
balloon  remained  stationary  over  the  land,  after  which 
a  cloud  suddenly  appeared  round  the  balloon,  denoting 
that  an  explosion  had  taken  place.  Both  Rozier  and 
his  companion  were  killed  in  the  fall,  so  that  he,  first 
to  leave  the  earth  by  balloon,  was  also  first  victim  to  the 
art  of  aerostation. 

There  followed,  naturally,  a  lull  in  the  enthusiasm 
with  which  ballooning  had  been  taken  up,  so  far  as 
France  was  concerned.  In  Italy,  however,  Count 
Zambeccari  took  up  hot-air  ballooning,  using  a  spirit 
lamp  to  give  him  buoyancy,  and  on  the  first  occasion 
when  the  balloon  car  was  set  on  fire  Zambeccari  let 
down  his  passenger  by  means  of  the  anchor  rope,  and 
managed  to  extinguish  the  fire  while  in  the  air.  This 
reduced  the  buoyancy  of  the  balloon  to  such  an  extent 
that  it  fell  into  the  Adriatic  and  was  totally  wrecked, 
Zambeccari  being  rescued  by  fishermen.  He  continued 
to  experiment  up  to  1812,  when  he  attempted  to  ascend 
at  Bologna;  the  spirit  in  his  lamp  was  upset  by  the 
collision  of  the  car  with  a  tree,  and  the  car  was  again 
set  on  fire.  Zambeccari  jumped  from  the  car  when  it 
was  over  fifty  feet  above  level  ground,  and  was  killed. 
With  him  the  Rozier  type  of  balloon,  combining  the 
hydrogen  and  hot  air  principles,  disappeared;  the 
combination  was  obviously  too  dangerous  to  be  practical. 

The  brothers  Robert  were  first  to  note  how  the  heat 
H,A.  327  Y 


A  HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

of  the  sun  acted  on  the  gases  within  a  balloon  envelope, 
and  it  has  since  been  ascertained  that  sun  rays  will  heat 
the  gas  in  a  balloon  to  as  much  as  80  degrees  Fahrenheit 
greater  temperature  than  the  surrounding  atmosphere; 
hydrogen,  being  less  affected  by  change  of  temperature 
than  coal  gas,  is  the  most  suitable  rilling  element,  and 
coal  gas  comes  next  as  the  medium  of  buoyancy.  This 
for  the  free  and  non-navigable  balloon,  though  for  the 
airship,  carrying  means  of  combustion,  and  in  military 
work  liable  to  ignition  by  explosives,  the  gas  helium 
seems  likely  to  replace  hydrogen,  being  non-combustible. 

In  spite  of  the  development  of  the  dirigible  airship, 
there  remains  work  for  the  free,  spherical  type  of  balloon 
in  the  scientific  field.  Blanchard's  companion  on  the 
first  Channel  crossing  by  balloon,  Dr  Jeffries,  was  the 
first  balloonist  to  ascend  for  purely  scientific  purposes; 
as  early  as  1784  he  made  an  ascent  to  a  height  of  9,000 
feet,  and  observed  a  fall  in  temperature  of  from  51 
degrees — at  the  level  of  London,  where  he  began  his 
ascent — to  29  degrees  at  the  maximum  height  reached. 
He  took  up  an  electrometer,  a  hydrometer,  a  compass, 
a  thermometer,  and  a  Toricelli  barometer,  together 
with  bottles  of  water,  in  order  to  collect  samples  of  the 
air  at  different  heights.  In  1785  he  made  a  second 
ascent,  when  trigonometrical  observations  of  the  height 
of  the  balloon  were  made  from  the  French  coast,  giving 
an  altitude  of  4,800  feet. 

The  matter  was  taken  up  on  its  scientific  side  very 
early  in  America,  experiments  in  Philadelphia  being 
almost  simultaneous  with  those  of  the  Mongolfiers  in 
France.  The  flight  of  Rozier  and  d'Arlandes  inspired 
two  members  of  the  Philadelphia  Philosophical  Academy 
to  constryct  a  balloon  or  series  of  balloons  of  their  own 

328 


BEGINNINGS 

design;  they  made  a  machine  which  consisted  of  no 
less  than  47  small  hydrogen  balloons  attached  to  a 
wicker  car,  and  made  certain  preliminary  trials,  using 
animals  as  passengers.  This  was  followed  by  a  captive 
ascent  with  a  man  as  passenger,  and  eventually  by  the 
first  free  ascent  in  America,  which  was  undertaken  by 
one  James  Wilcox,  a  carpenter,  on  December  28th 
1783.  Wilcox,  fearful  of  falling  into  a  river,  attempted 
to  regulate  his  landing  by  cutting  slits  in  some  of  the 
supporting  balloons,  which  was  the  method  adopted 
for  regulating  ascent  or  descent  in  this  machine.  He 
first  cut  three,  and  then,  finding  that  the  effect  produced 
was  not  sufficient,  cut  three  more,  and  then  another 
five — eleven  out  of  the  forty-seven.  The  result  was  so 
swift  a  descent  that  he  dislocated  his  wrist  on  landing. 


A  NOTE  ON  BALLONETS  OR  AIR  BAGS. 

Meusnier,  toward  the  end  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  was  first  to  conceive  the  idea  of  compen- 
sating for  the  loss  of  gas  due  to  expansion  by  fitting  to 
the  interior  of  a  free  balloon  a  ballonet,  or  air  bag, 
which  could  be  pumped  full  of  air  so  as  to  retain  the 
shape  and  rigidity  of  the  envelope. 

The  ballonet  became  particularly  valuable  as  soon 
as  airship  construction  became  general,  and  it  was  in 
the  course  of  advance  in  Astra  Torres  design  that  the 
project  was  introduced  of  using  the  ballonets  in  order 
to  give  inclination  from  the  horizontal.  In  the  earlier 
Astra  Torres,  trimming  was  accomplished  by  moving 
the  car  fore  and  aft — this  in  itself  was  an  advance  on 
the  separate  '  sliding  weight '  principle — and  this  was 

329 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

the  method  followed  in  the  Astra  Torres  bought  by 
the  British  Government  from  France  in  1912  for 
training  airship  pilots.  Subsequently,  the  two  ballonets 
fitted  inside  the  envelope  were  made  to  serve  for  trimming 
by  the  extent  of  their  inflation,  and  this  method  of 
securing  inclination  proved  the  best  until  exterior  rudders, 
and  greater  engine  power,  supplanted  it,  as  in  the 
Zeppelin  and,  in  fact,  all  rigid  types. 

In  the  kite  balloon,  the  ballonet  serves  the  purpose 
of  a  rudder,  filling  itself  through  the  opening  being 
kept  pointed  toward  the  wind — there  is  an  ingenious 
type  of  air  scoop  with  non-return  valve  which  assures 
perfect  inflation.  In  the  S.  S.  type  of  airship,  two 
ballonets  are  provided,  the  supply  of  air  being  taken 
from  the  propeller  draught  by  a  slanting  aluminium 
tube  to  the  underside  of  the  envelope,  where  it  meets 
a  longitudinal  fabric  hose  which  connects  the  two 
ballonet  air  inlets.  In  this  hose  the  non-return  air 
valves,  known  as  '  crab-pots,'  are  fitted,  on  either  side 
of  the  junction  with  the  air-scoop.  Two  automatic 
air  valves,  one  for  each  ballonet,  are  fitted  in  the  under- 
side of  the  envelope,  and,  as  the  air  pressure  tends  to 
open  these  instead  of  keeping  them  shut,  the  spring  of 
the  valve  is  set  inside  the  envelope.  Each  spring  is 
set  to  open  at  a  pressure  of  25  to  28  mm. 


330 


II 


THE    FIRST    DIRIGIBLES 


HAVING  got  off  the  earth,  the  very  early  balloonists  set 
about  the  task  of  finding  a  means  of  navigating  the  air, 
but,  lacking  steam  or  other  accessory  power  to  human 
muscle,  they  failed  to  solve  the  problem.  Joseph 
Mongolfier  speedily  exploded  the  idea  of  propelling 
a  balloon  either  by  means  of  oars  or  sails,  pointing  out 
that  even  in  a  dead  calm  a  speed  of  five  miles  an  hour 
would  be  the  limit  achieved.  Still,  sailing  balloons 
were  constructed,  even  up  to  the  time  of  Andree,  the 
explorer,  who  proposed  to  retard  the  speed  of  the  balloon 
by  ropes  dragging  on  the  ground,  and  then  to  spread 
a  sail  which  should  catch  the  wind  and  permit  of  deviation 
of  the  course.  It  has  been  proved  that  slight  divergences 
from  the  course  of  the  wind  can  be  obtained  by  this 
means,  but  no  real  navigation  of  the  air  could  be  thus 
accomplished. 

Professor  Wellner,  of  Brunn,  brought  up  the  idea 
of  a  sailing  balloon  in  more  practical  fashion  in  1883. 
He  observed  that  surfaces  inclined  to  the  horizontal 
have  a  slight  lateral  motion  in  rising  and  falling,  and 
deduced  that  by  alternate  lowering  and  raising  of  such 
surfaces  he  would  be  able  to  navigate  the  air,  regulating 
ascent  and  descent  by  increasing  or  decreasing  the 
temperature  of  his  buoyant  medium  in  the  balloon. 
He  calculated  that  a  balloon,  50  feet  in  diameter  and  150 

331 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

feet  in  length,  with  a  vertical  surface  in  front  and  a 
horizontal  surface  behind,  might  be  navigated  at  a 
speed  of  ten  miles  per  hour,  and  in  actual  tests  at  Brunn 
he  proved  that  a  single  rise  and  fall  moved  the  balloon 
three  miles  against  the  wind.  His  ideas  were  further 
developed  by  Lebaudy  in  the  construction  of  the  early 
French  dirigibles. 

According  to  Hildebrandt,1  the  first  sailing  balloon 
was  built  in  1784  by  Guyot,  who  made  his  balloon 
egg-shaped,  with  the  smaller  end  at  the  back  and  the 
longer  axis  horizontal;  oars  were  intended  to  propel 
the  craft,  and  naturally  it  was  a  failure.  Carra  proposed 
the  use  of  paddle  wheels,  a  step  in  the  right  direction, 
by  mounting  them  on  the  sides  of  the  car,  but  the 
improvement  was  only  slight.  Guyton  de  Morveau, 
entrusted  by  the  Academy  of  Dijon  with  the  building 
of  a  sailing  balloon,  first  used  a  vertical  rudder  at  the 
rear  end  of  his  construction — it  survives  in  the  modern 
dirigible.  His  construction  included  sails  and  oars, 
but,  lacking  steam  or  other  than  human  propulsive 
power,  the  airship  was  a  failure  equally  with  Guyot's. 

Two  priests,  Miollan  and  Janinet,  proposed  to 
drive  balloons  through  the  air  by  the  forcible  expulsion  of 
the  hot  air  in  the  envelope  from  the  rear  of  the  balloon. 
An  opening  was  made  about  half-way  up  the  envelope, 
through  which  the  hot  air  was  to  escape,  buoyancy 
being  maintained  by  a  pan  of  combustibles  in  the  car. 
Unfortunately,  this  development  of  the  Mongolfier 
type  never  got  a  trial,  for  those  who  were  to  be  spectators 
of  the  first  flight  grew  exasperated  at  successive  delays, 
and  in  the  end,  thinking  that  the  balloon  would  never 
rise,  they  destroyed  it. 

1  Airships  Past  and  Present. 

332 


THE  FIRST  DIRIGIBLES 

Meusnier,  a  French  general,  first  conceived  the 
idea  of  compensating  for  loss  of  gas  by  carrying  an  air 
bag  inside  the  balloon,  in  order  to  maintain  the  full 
expansion  of  the  envelope.  The  brothers  Robert 
constructed  the  first  balloon  in  which  this  was  tried, 
and  placed  the  air  bag  near  the  neck  of  the  balloon, 
which  was  intended  to  be  driven  by  oars,  and  steered 
by  a  rudder.  A  violent  swirl  of  wind  which  was 
encountered  on  the  first  ascent  tore  away  the  oars  and 
rudder  and  broke  the  ropes  which  held  the  air  bag  in 
position ;  the  bag  fell  into  the  opening  of  the  neck  and 
stopped  it  up,  preventing  the  escape  of  gas  under 
expansion.  The  Due  de  Chartres,  who  was  aboard, 
realised  the  extreme  danger  of  the  envelope  bursting 
as  the  balloon  ascended,  and  at  16,000  feet  he 
thrust  a  staff  through  the  envelope — another  account 
says  that  he  slit  it  with  his  sword — and  thus  prevented 
disaster.  The  descent  after  this  rip  in  the  fabric  was 
swift,  but  the  passengers  got  off  without  injury  in  the 
landing. 

Meusnier,  experimenting  in  various  ways,  ex- 
perimented with  regard  to  the  resistance  offered  by 
various  shapes  to  the  air,  and  found  that  an  elliptical 
shape  was  best;  he  proposed  to  make  the  car  boat- 
shaped,  in  order  further  to  decrease  the  resistance,  and 
he  advocated  an  entirely  rigid  connection  between  the 
car  and  the  body  of  the  balloon,  as  indispensable  to  a 
dirigible.1  He  suggested  using  three  propellers,  which 
were  to  be  driven  by  hand  by  means  of  pulleys,  and 
calculated  that  a  crew  of  eighty  would  be  required  to 
furnish  sufficient  motive  power.  Horizontal  fins  were 
to  be  used  to  assure  stability,  and  Meusnier  thoroughly 

*Hildebrandt. 

333 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

investigated  the  pressures  exerted  by  gases,  in  order 
to  ascertain  the  stresses  to  which  the  envelope  would 
be  subjected.  More  important  still,  he  went  into 
detail  with  regard  to  the  use  of  air  bags,  in  order  to 
retain  the  shape  of  the  balloon  under  varying  pressures 
of  gas  due  to  expansion  and  consequent  losses;  he 
proposed  two  separate  envelopes,  the  inner  one  containing 
gas,  and  the  space  between  it  and  the  outer  one  being 
filled  with  air.  Further,  by  compressing  the  air  inside 
the  air  bag,  the  rate  of  ascent  or  descent  could  be 
regulated.  Lebaudy,  acting  on  this  principle,  found 
it  possible  to  pump  air  at  the  rate  of  35  cubic  feet  per 
second,  thus  making  good  loss  of  ballast  which  had  to 
be  thrown  overboard. 

Meusnier's  balloon,  of  course,  was  never  constructed, 
but  his  ideas  have  been  of  value  to  aerostation  up  to 
the  present  time.  His  career  ended  in  the  revolutionary 
army  in  1793,  when  he  was  killed  in  the  fighting  before 
Mayence,  and  the  King  of  Prussia  ordered  all  firing  to 
cease  until  Meusnier  had  been  buried.  No  other  genius 
came  forward  to  carry  on  his  work,  and  it  was  realised 
that  human  muscle  could  not  drive  a  balloon  with 
certainty  through  the  air;  experiment  in  this  direction 
was  abandoned  for  nearly  sixty  years,  until  in  1852 
Giffard  brought  the  first  practicable  power-driven 
dirigible  to  being. 

Giffard,  inventor  of  the  steam  injector,  had  already 
made  balloon  ascents  when  he  turned  to  aeronautical 
propulsion,  and  constructed  a  steam  engine  of  5  horse- 
power with  a  weight  of  only  100  Ibs. — a  great  achieve- 
ment for  his  day.  Having  got  his  engine,  he  set  about 
making  the  balloon  which  it  was  to  drive;  this  he  built 
with  the  aid  of  two  other  enthusiasts,  diverging  from 

334 


THE  FIRST  DIRIGIBLES 

Meusnier's  ideas  by  making  the  ends  pointed,  and 
keeping  the  body  narrowed  from  Meusnier's  ellipse 
to  a  shape  more  resembling  a  rather  fat  cigar.  The  length 
was  144  feet,  and  the  greatest  diameter  only  40  feet, 
while  the  capacity  was  88,000  cubic  feet.  A  net  which 
covered  the  envelope  of  the  balloon  supported  a  spar, 
66  feet  in  length,  at  the  end  of  which  a  triangular  sail 
was  placed  vertically  to  act  as  rudder.  The  car,  slung 
20  feet  below  the  spar,  carried  the  engine  and  propeller. 
Engine  and  boiler  together  weighed  350  Ibs.,  and  drove 
the  1 1  foot  propeller  at  1 1  o  revolutions  per  minute. 

As  precaution  against  explosion,  Giffard  arranged 
wire  gauze  in  front  of  the  stoke-hole  of  his  boiler,  and 
provided  an  exhaust  pipe  which  discharged  the  waste 
gases  from  the  engine  in  a  downward  direction.  With 
this  first  dirigible  he  attained  to  a  speed  of  between 
6  and  8  feet  per  second,  thus  proving  that  the  propulsion 
of  a  balloon  was  a  possibility,  now  that  steam  had  come 
to  supplement  human  effort. 

Three  years  later  he  built  a  second  dirigible, 
reducing  the  diameter  and  increasing  the  length  of  the 
gas  envelope,  with  a  view  to  reducing  air  resistance. 
The  length  of  this  was  230  feet,  the  diameter  only  33 
feet,  and  the  capacity  was  113,000  cubic  feet,  while  the 
upper  part  of  the  envelope,  to  which  the  covering  net 
was  attached,  was  specially  covered  to  ensure  a  stiffening 
effect.  The  car  of  this  dirigible  was  dropped  rather 
lower  than  that  of  the  first  machine,  in  order  to  provide 
more  thoroughly  against  the  danger  of  explosions. 
Giffard,  with  a  companion  named  Yon  as  passenger, 
took  a  trial  trip  on  this  vessel,  and  made  a  journey  against 
the  wind,  though  slowly.  In  commencing  to  descend, 
the  nose  of  the  envelope  tilted  upwards,  and  the  weight 

335 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

of  the  car  and  its  contents  caused  the  net  to  slip,  so  that 
just  before  the  dirigible  reached  the  ground,  the  envelope 
burst.  Both  Giffard  and  his  companion  escaped  with 
very  slight  injuries. 

Plans  were  immediately  made  for  the  construction 
of  a  third  dirigible,  which  was  to  be  1,970  feet  in  length, 
98  feet  in  extreme  diameter,  and  to  have  a  capacity  of 
7,800,000  cubic  feet  of  gas.  The  engine  of  this  giant 
was  to  have  weighed  30  tons,  and  with  it  Giffard  expected 
to  attain  a  speed  of  40  miles  per  hour.  Cost  prevented 
the  scheme  being  carried  out,  and  Giffard  went  on 
designing  small  steam  engines  until  his  invention  of 
the  steam  injector  gave  him  the  funds  to  turn  to  dirigibles 
again.  He  built  a  captive  balloon  for  the  great  exhibition 
in  London  in  1868,  at  a  cost  of  nearly  £30,000,  and 
designed  a  dirigible  balloon  which  was  to  have  held  a 
million  and  three  quarters  cubic  feet  of  gas,  carry  two 
boilers,  and  cost  about  £40,000.  The  plans  were 
thoroughly  worked  out,  down  to  the  last  detail,  but 
the  dirigible  was  never  constructed.  Giffard  went 
blind,  and  died  in  1882 — he  stands  as  the  great  pioneer 
of  dirigible  construction,  more  on  the  strength  of  the 
two  vessels  which  he  actually  built  than  on  that  of  the 
ambitious  later  conceptions  of  his  brain. 

In  1872  Dupuy  de  Lome,  commissioned  by  the 
French  government,  built  a  dirigible  which  he  proposed 
to  drive  by  man-power — it  was  anticipated  that  the 
vessel  would  be  of  use  in  the  siege  of  Paris,  but  it  was 
not  actually  tested  till  after  the  conclusion  of  the  war. 
The  length  of  this  vessel  was  1 1 8  feet,  its  greatest 
diameter  49  feet,  the  ends  being  pointed,  and  the 
motive  power  was  by  a  propeller  which  was  revolved 
by  the  efforts  of  eight  men.  The  vessel  attained  to 

336 


THE  FIRST  DIRIGIBLES 

about  the  same  speed  as  Giffard's  steam-driven  airship; 
it  was  capable  of  carrying  fourteen  men,  who,  apart  from 
these  engaged  in  driving  the  propeller,  had  to  manipulate 
the  pumps  which  controlled  the  air  bags  inside  the  gas 
envelope. 

In  the  same  year  Paul  Haenlein,  working  in  Vienna, 
produced  an  airship  which  was  a  direct  forerunner  of 
the  Lebaudy  type,  164  feet  in  length,  30  feet  greatest 
diameter,  and  with  a  cubic  capacity  of  85,000  feet. 
Semi-rigidity  was  attained  by  placing  the  car  as  close 
to  the  envelope  as  possible,  suspending  it  by  crossed  ropes, 
and  the  motive  power  was  a  gas  engine  of  the  Lenoir 
type,  having  four  horizontal  cylinders,  and  giving 
about  5  horse-power  with  a  consumption  of  about  250 
cubic  feet  of  gas  per  hour.  This  gas  was  sucked  from 
the  envelope  of  the  balloon,  which  was  kept  fully  inflated 
by  pumping  in  compensating  air  to  the  air  bags  inside 
the  main  envelope.  A  propeller,  15  feet  in  diameter, 
was  driven  by  the  Lenoir  engine  at  40  revolutions  per 
minute.  This  was  the  first  instance  of  the  use  of  an 
internal  combustion  engine  in  connection  with  aero- 
nautical experiments. 

The  envelope  of  this  dirigible  was  rendered  airtight 
by  means  of  internal  rubber  coating,  with  a  thinner 
film  on  the  outside.  Coal  gas,  used  for  inflation, 
formed  a  suitable  fuel  for  the  engine,  but  limited  the 
height  to  which  the  dirigible  could  ascend.  Such  trials 
as  were  made  were  carried  out  with  the  dirigible  held 
captive,  and  a  speed  of  15  feet  per  second  was  attained. 
Full  experiment  was  prevented  through  funds  running 
low,  but  Haenlein 's  work  constituted  a  distinct  advance 
on  all  that  had  been  done  previously. 

Two  brothers,  Albert  and  Gaston  Tissandier,  were 

337 


A  HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

next  to  enter  the  field  of  dirigible  construction;  they 
had  experimented  with  balloons  during  the  Franco- 
Prussian  War,  and  had  attempted  to  get  into  Paris  by 
balloon  during  the  siege,  but  it  was  not  until  1882  that 
they  produced  their  dirigible. 

This  was  92  feet  in  length  and  32  feet  in  greatest 
diameter,  with  a  cubic  capacity  of  37,500  feet,  and  the 
fabric  used  was  varnished  cambric.  The  car  was  made 
of  bamboo  rods,  and  in  addition  to  its  crew  of  three, 
it  carried  a  Siemens  dynamo,  with  24  bichromate  cells, 
each  of  which  weighed  17  Ibs.  The  motor  gave  out 
1 1  horse-power,  which  was  sufficient  to  drive  the  vessel 
at  a  speed  of  up  to  10  feet  per  second.  This  was  not 
so  good  as  Haenlein's  previous  attempt  and,  after 
£2,000  had  been  spent,  the  Tissandiers  abandoned 
their  experments,  since  a  ^-mile  breeze  was  sufficient 
to  nullify  the  power  of  the  motor. 

Renard,  a  French  officer  who  had  studied  the 
problem  of  dirigible  construction  since  1878,  associated 
himself  first  with  a  brother  officer  named  La  Haye,  and 
subsequently  with  another  officer,  Krebs,  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  second  dirigible  to  be  electrically- 
propelled.  La  Haye  first  approached  Colonel  Laussedat, 
in  charge  of  the  Engineers  of  the  French  Army,  with 
a  view  to  obtaining  funds,  but  was  refused,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  practical  failure  of  all  experiments  since 
1870.  Renard,  with  whom  Krebs  had  now  associated 
himself,  thereupon  went  to  Gambetta,  and  succeeded 
in  getting  a  promise  of  a  grant  of  £8,000  for  the  work; 
with  this  promise  Renard  and  Krebs  set  to  work. 

They  built  their  airship  in  torpedo  shape,  165  feet 
in  length,  and  of  just  over  27  feet  greatest  diameter — 
the  greatest  diameter  was  at  the  front,  and  the  cubic 

338 


THE   FIRST  DIRIGIBLES 

capacity  was  66,000  feet.  The  car  itself  was  108  feet 
in  length,  and  4^  feet  broad,  covered  with  silk  over 
the  bamboo  framework.  The  23  foot  diameter  propeller 
was  of  wood,  and  was  driven  by  an  electric  motor 
connected  to  an  accumulator,  and  yielding  8-5  horse- 
power. The  sweep  of  the  propeller,  which  might  have 
brought  it  in  contact  with  the  ground  in  landing,  was 
counteracted  by  rendering  it  possible  to  raise  the  axis 
on  which  the  blades  were  mounted,  and  a  guide  rope 
was  used  to  obviate  damage  altogether,  in  case  of  rapid 
descent.  There  was  also  a  *  sliding  weight '  which 
was  movable  to  any  required  position  to  shift  the  centre 
of  gravity  as  desired.  Altogether,  with  passengers  and 
ballast  aboard,  the  craft  weighed  two  tons. 

In  the  afternoon  of  August  9th,  1884,  Renard  and 
Krebs  ascended  in  the  dirigible — which  they  had  named 
'  La  France,'  from  the  military  ballooning  ground  at 
Chalais-Meudon,  making  a  circular  flight  of  about 
five  miles,  the  latter  part  of  which  was  in  the  face  of  a 
slight  wind.  They  found  that  the  vessel  answered  well 
to  her  rudder,  and  the  five-mile  flight  was  made  suc- 
cessfully in  a  period  of  23  minutes.  Subsequent 
experimental  flights  determined  that  the  air  speed  of 
the  dirigible  was  no  less  than  14^  miles  per  hour,  by 
far  the  best  that  had  so  far  been  accomplished  in  dirigible 
flight.  Seven  flights  in  all  were  made,  and  of  these 
five  were  completely  successful,  the  dirigible  returning 
to  its  starting  point  with  no  difficulty.  On  the  other 
two  flights  it  had  to  be  towed  back. 

Renard  attempted  to  repeat  his  construction  on  a 
larger  scale,  but  funds  would  not  permit,  and  the  type 
was  abandoned;  the  motive  power  was  not  sufficient 
to  permit  of  more  than  short  flights,  and  even  to  the 

339 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

present  time  electric  motors,  with  their  necessary 
accumulators,  are  far  too  cumbrous  to  compete  with 
the  self-contained  internal  combustion  engine.  France 
had  to  wait  for  the  Lebaudy  brothers,  just  as  Germany 
had  to  wait  for  Zeppelin  and  Parseval. 

Two  German  experimenters,  Baumgarten  and 
Wolfert,  fitted  a  Daimler  motor  to  a  dirigible  balloon 
which  made  its  first  ascent  at  Leipzig  in  1880.  This 
vessel  had  three  cars,  and  placing  a  passenger  in  one 
of  the  outer  cars1  distributed  the  load  unevenly,  so  that 
the  whole  vessel  tilted  over  and  crashed  to  the  earth, 
the  occupants  luckily  escaping  without  injury.  After 
Baumgarten 's  death,  Wolfert  determined  to  carry  on 
with  his  experiments,  and,  having  achieved  a  certain 
measure  of  success,  he  announced  an  ascent  to  take 
place  on  the  Tempelhofer  Field,  near  Berlin,  on  June 
1 2th,  1897.  The  vessel,  travelling  with  the  wind, 
reached  a  height  of  600  feet,  when  the  exhaust  of  the 
motor  communicated  flame  to  the  envelope  of  the 
balloon,  and  Wolfert,  together  with  a  passenger  he 
carried,  was  either  killed  by  the  fall  or  burnt  to  death 
on  the  ground.  Giffard  had  taken  special  precautions 
to  avoid  an  accident  of  this  nature,  and  Wolfert,  failing 
to  observe  equal  care,  paid  the  full  penalty. 

Platz,  a  German  soldier,  attempting  an  ascent  on 
the  Tempelhofer  Field  in  the  Schwartz  airship  in  1897, 
merely  proved  the  dirigible  a  failure.  The  vessel  was 
of  aluminium,  0-008  inch  in  thickness,  strengthened  by  an 
aluminium  lattice  work;  the  motor  was  two-cylindered 
petrol-driven;  at  the  first  trial  the  metal  developed 
such  leaks  that  the  vessel  came  to  the  ground  within 
four  miles  of  its  starting  point.  Platz,  who  was  aboard 

lHildebrandt. 
340 


THE  FIRST  DIRIGIBLES 

alone  as  crew,  succeeded  in  escaping  by  jumping  clear 
before  the  car  touched  earth,  but  the  shock  of  alighting 
broke  up  the  balloon,  and  a  following  high  wind  com- 
pleted the  work  of  full  destruction.  A  second  account 
says  that  Platz,  finding  the  propellers  insufficient  to 
drive  the  vessel  against  the  wind,  opened  the  valve  and 
descended  too  rapidly. 

The  envelope  of  this  dirigible  was  156  feet  in 
length,  and  the  method  of  filling  was  that  of  pushing 
in  bags,  fill  them  with  gas,  and  then  pulling  them  to 
pieces  and  tearing  them  out  of  the  body  of  the  balloon. 
A  second  contemplated  method  of  filling  was  by  placing 
a  linen  envelope  inside  the  aluminium  casing,  blowing 
it  out  with  air,  and  then  admitting  the  gas  between  the 
linen  and  the  aluminium  outer  casing.  This  would 
compress  the  air  out  of  the  linen  envelope,  which  was 
to  be  withdrawn  when  the  aluminium  casing  had  been 
completely  filled  with  gas. 

All  this,  however,  assumes  that  the  Schwartz  type 
— the  first  rigid  dirigible,  by  the  way — would  prove 
successful.  As  it  proved  a  failure  on  the  first  trial,  the 
problem  of  filling  it  did  not  arise  again. 

By  this  time  Zeppelin,  retired  from  the  German 
army,  had  begun  to  devote  himself  to  the  study  of 
dirigible  construction,  and,  a  year  after  Schwartz  had 
made  his  experiment  and  had  failed,  he  got  together 
sufficient  funds  for  the  formation  of  a  limited  liability 
company,  and  started  on  the  construction  of  the  first 
of  his  series  of  airships.  The  age  of  tentative  experiment 
was  over,  and,  forerunner  of  the  success  of  the  heavier- 
than-air  type  of  flying  machine,  successsful  dirigible 
flight  was  accomplished  by  Zeppelin  in  Germany,  and 
by  Santos-Dumont  in  France. 

341 


Ill 


SANTOS-DUMONT 

A  BRAZILIAN  by  birth,  Santos-Dumont  began  in  Paris 
in  the  year  1898  to  make  history,  which  he  subsequently 
wrote.  His  book,  My  Airships,  is  a  record  of  his  eight 
years  of  work  on  lighter-than-air  machines,  a  period 
in  which  he  constructed  no  less  than  fourteen  dirigible 
balloons,  beginning  with  a  cubic  capacity  of  6,350 
feet,  and  an  engine  of  3  horse-power,  and  rising  to  a 
cubic  capacity  of  71,000  feet  on  the  tenth  dirigible  he 
constructed,  and  an  engine  of  60  horse-power,  which 
was  fitted  to  the  seventh  machine  in  order  of  construction, 
the  one  which  he  built  after  winning  the  Deutsch  Prize. 
The  student  of  dirigible  construction  is  recommended 
to  Santos-Dumont's  own  book  not  only  as  a  full  record 
of  his  work,  but  also  as  one  of  the  best  stories  of  aerial 
navigation  that  has  ever  been  written.  Throughout 
all  his  experiments,  he  adhered  to  the  non-rigid  type; 
his  first  dirigible  made  its  first  flight  on  September  i8th, 
1898,  starting  from  the  Jardin  d'Acclimatation  to  the 
west  of  Paris;  he  calculated  that  his  3  horse-power 
engine  would  yield  sufficient  power  to  enable  him  to 
steer  clear  of  the  trees  with  which  the  starting-point 
was  surrounded,  but,  yielding  to  the  advice  of  professional 
aeronauts  who  were  present,  with  regard  to  the  placing 
of  the  dirigible  for  his  start,  he  tore  the  envelope  against 
the  trees.  Two  days  later,  having  repaired  the  balloon, 

34* 


SANTOS-DUMONT 

he  made  an  ascent  of  1,300  feet.  In  descending,  the 
hydrogen  left  in  the  balloon  contracted,  and  Santos- 
Dumont  narrowly  escaped  a  serious  accident  in  coming 
to  the  ground. 

His  second  machine,  built  in  the  early  spring  of 
1899,  held  over  7,000  cubic  feet  of  gas  and  gave  a 
further  44  Ibs.  of  ascensional  force.  The  balloon 
envelope  was  very  long  and  very  narrow;  the  first 
attempt  at  flight  was  made  in  wind  and  rain,  and  the 
weather  caused  sufficient  contraction  of  the  hydrogen 
for  a  wind  gust  to  double  the  machine  up  and  toss  it 
into  the  trees  near  its  starting-point.  The  inventor 
immediately  set  about  the  construction  of  '  Santos- 
Dumont  No.  3,'  on  which  he  made  a  number  of  suc- 
cessful flights,  beginning  on  November  I3th,  1899. 
On  the  last  of  his  flights,  he  lost  the  rudder  of  the 
machine  and  made  a  fortunate  landing  at  Ivry.  He 
did  not  repair  the  balloon,  considering  it  too  clumsy 
in  form  and  its  motor  too  small.  Consequently  No.  4 
was  constructed,  being  finished  on  the  ist  August,  1900. 
It  had  a  cubic  capacity  of  14,800  feet,  a  length  of  129 
feet  and  greatest  diameter  of  16-7  feet,  the  power  plant 
being  a  7  horse-power  Buchet  motor.  Santos-Dumont 
sat  on  a  bicycle  saddle  fixed  to  the  long  bar  suspended 
under  the  machine,  which  also  supported  motor, 
propeller,  ballast,  and  fuel.  The  experiment  of  placing 
the  propeller  at  the  stem  instead  of  at  the  stern  was 
tried,  and  the  motor  gave  it  a  speed  of  100  revolutions 
per  minute.  Professor  Langley  witnessed  the  trials 
of  the  machine,  which  proved  before  the  members  of 
the  International  Congress  of  Aeronautics,  on  September 
1 9th,  that  it  was  capable  of  holding  its  own  against  a 
strong  wind. 

H.A.  343  z 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

Finding  that  the  cords  with  which  his  dirigible 
balloon  cars  were  suspended  offered  almost  as  much 
resistance  to  the  air  as  did  the  balloon  itself,  Santos- 
Dumont  substituted  piano  wire  and  found  that  the 
alteration  constituted  greater  progress  than  many  a 
more  showy  device.  He  altered  the  shape  and  size  of 
his  No.  4  to  a  certain  extent  and  fitted  a  motor  of 
12  horse-power.  Gravity  was  controlled  by  shifting 
weights  worked  by  a  cord;  rudder  and  propeller  were 
both  placed  at  the  stern.  In  Santos-Dumont's  book 
there  is  a  certain  amount  of  confusion  between  the 
No.  4  and  No.  5  airships,  until  he  explains  that  *  No.  5  * 
is  the  reconstructed  *  No.  4.'  It  was  with  No.  5  that 
he  won  the  Encouragement  Prize  presented  by  the 
Scientific  Commission  of  the  Paris  Aero  Club.  This 
he  devoted  to  the  first  aeronaut  who  between  May  and 
October  of  1900  should  start  from  St  Cloud,  round  the 
Eiffel  Tower,  and  return.  If  not  won  in  that  year,  the 
prize  was  to  remain  open  the  following  year  from  May 
1st  to  October  ist  and  so  on  annually  until  won.  This 
was  a  simplification  of  the  conditions  of  the  Deutsch 
Prize  itself,  the  winning  of  which  involved  a  journey 
of  1 1  kilometres  in  30  minutes. 

The  Santos-Dumont  No.  5,  which  was  in  reality 
the  modified  No.  4  with  new  keel,  motor,  and  propeller, 
did  the  course  of  the  Deutsch  Prize,  but  with  it  Santos- 
Dumont  made  no  attempt  to  win  the  prize  until  July 
of  1901,  when  he  completed  the  course  in  40  minutes, 
but  tore  his  balloon  in  landing.  On  the  8th  August, 
with  his  balloon  leaking,  he  made  a  second  attempt, 
and  narrowly  escaped  disaster,  the  airship  being  entirely 
wrecked.  Thereupon  he  built  No.  6  with  a  cubic 
capacity  of  22,239  ^cct  an<^  a  lifting  power  of  1,518  Ibs. 

344 


SANTOS-DUMONT 

With  this  machine  he  won  the  Deutsch  Prize  on 
October  I9th,  1901,  starting  with  the  disadvantage  of 
a  side  wind  of  20  feet  per  second.  He  reached  the 
Eiffel  Tower  in  9  minutes  and,  through  miscalculating 
his  turn,  only  just  missed  colliding  with  it.  He  got 
No.  6  under  control  again  and  succeeded  in  getting 
back  to  his  starting-point  in  29^-  minutes,  thus  winning 
the  125,000  francs  which  constituted  the  Deutsch  Prize, 
together  with  a  similar  sum  granted  to  him  by  the 
Brazilian  Government  for  the  exploit.  The  greater 
part  of  this  money  was  given  by  Santos-Dumont  to 
charities. 

He  went  on  building  after  this  until  he  had  made 
fourteen  non-rigid  dirigibles ;  of  these  No.  1 2  was  placed 
at  the  disposal  of  the  military  authorities,  while  the 
rest,  except  for  one  that  was  sold  to  an  American  and 
made  only  one  trip,  were  matters  of  experiment  for 
their  maker.  His  conclusions  from  his  experiments 
may  be  gathered  from  his  own  work: — 

*  On  Friday,  3ist  July,  1903,  Commandant 
Hirschauer  and  Lieutenant-Colonel  Bourdeaux  spent 
the  afternoon  with  me  at  my  airship  station  at  Neuilly 
St  James,  where  I  had  my  three  newest  airships — the 
racing  '  No.  7,'  the  omnibus  '  No.  10,'  and  the  runabout 
1  No.  9  ' — ready  for  their  study.  Briefly,  I  may  say 
that  the  opinions  expressed  by  the  representatives  of 
the  Minister  of  War  were  so  unreservedly  favourable 
that  a  practical  test  of  a  novel  character  was  decided  to 
be  made.  Should  the  airship  chosen  pass  successfully 
through  it  the  result  will  be  conclusive  of  its  military 
value. 

Now  that  these  particular  experiments  are  leaving 
my  exclusively  private  control  I  will  say  no  more  of 

345 


A   HISTORY   OF  AERNOAUTICS 

them  than  what  has  been  already  published  in  the 
French  press.  The  test  will  probably  consist  of  an 
attempt  to  enter  one  of  the  French  frontier  towns,  such 
as  Belfort  or  Nancy,  on  the  same  day  that  the  airship 
leaves  Paris.  It  will  not,  of  course,  be  necessary  to 
make  the  whole  journey  in  the  airship.  A  military 
railway  wagon  may  be  assigned  to  carry  it,  with  its 
balloon  uninflated,  with  tubes  of  hydrogen  to  fill  it,  and 
with  all  the  necessary  machinery  and  instruments 
arranged  beside  it.  At  some  station  a  short  distance 
from  the  town  to  be  entered  the  wagon  may  be  uncoupled 
from  the  train,  and  a  sufficient  number  of  soldiers 
accompanying  the  officers  will  unload  the  airship  and 
its  appliances,  transport  the  whole  to  the  nearest  open 
space,  and  at  once  begin  inflating  the  balloon.  Within 
two  hours  from  quitting  the  train  the  airship  may  be 
ready  for  its  flight  to  the  interior  of  the  technically- 
besieged  town. 

*  Such    may    be   the    outline   of  the   task — a    task 
presented    imperiously    to    French    balloonists    by    the 
events  of  1870-1,  and  which  all  the  devotion  and  science 
of  the  Tissandier  brothers  failed  to  accomplish.    To-day 
the   problem  may  be  set  with  better  hope  of  success. 
All  the  essential  difficulties  may  be  revived  by  the  marking 
out  of  a  hostile  zone  around  the  town  that  must  be 
entered;     from   beyond   the   outer   edge   of  this   zone, 
then,  the  airship  will  rise  and  take  its  flight — across  it. 

*  Will  the  airship  be  able  to  rise  out  of  rifle  range  ? 
I  have  always  been  the  first  to  insist  that  the  normal  place 
of  the  airship  is  in  low  altitudes,  and  I  shall  have  written 
this  book  to  little  purpose  if  I  have  not  shown  the  reader 
the  real  dangers  attending  any  brusque  vertical  mounting 
to  considerable  heights.     For  this  we  have  the  terrible 

346 


SANTOS-DUMONT 

Severe  accident  before  our  eyes.  In  particular,  I  have 
expressed  astonishment  -at  hearing  of  experimenters 
rising  to  these  altitudes  without  adequate  purpose  in 
their  early  stages  of  experience  with  dirigible  balloons. 
All  this  is  very  different,  however,  from  a  reasoned, 
cautious  mounting,  whose  necessity  has  been  foreseen 
and  prepared  for/ 

Probably  owing  to  the  fact  that  his  engines  were  not 
of  sufficient  power,  Santos-Dumont  cannot  be  said  to 
have  solved  the  problem  of  the  military  airship,  although 
the  French  Government  bought  one  of  his  vessels. 
At  the  same  time,  he  accomplished  much  in  furthering 
and  inciting  experiment  with  dirigible  airships,  and  he 
will  always  rank  high  among  the  pioneers  of  aerostation. 
His  experiments  might  have  gone  further  had  not  the 
Wright  brothers'  success  in  America  and  French  interest 
in  the  problem  of  the  heavier-than-air  machine  turned 
him  from  the  study  of  dirigibles  to  that  of  the  aeroplane, 
in  which  also  he  takes  high  rank  among  the  pioneers, 
leaving  the  construction  of  a  successful  military  dirigible 
to  such  men  as  the  Lebaudy  brothers,  Major  Parseval, 
and  Zeppelin. 


347 


IV 


THE    MILITARY    DIRIGIBLE 


ALTHOUGH  French  and  German  experiment  in  con- 
nection with  the  production  of  an  airship  which  should 
be  suitable  for  military  purposes  proceeded  side  by 
side,  it  is  necessary  to  outline  the  development  in  the 
two  countries  separately,  owing  to  the  differing  character 
of  the  work  carried  out.  So  far  as  France  is  concerned, 
experiment  began  with  the  Lebaudy  brothers,  originally 
sugar  refiners,  who  turned  their  energies  to  airship 
construction  in  1899.  Three  years  of  work  went  to 
the  production  of  their  first  vessel,  which  was  launched 
in  1902,  having  been  constructed  by  them  together 
with  a  balloon  manufacturer  named  Surcouf  and  an 
engineer,  Julliot.  The  Lebaudy  airships  were  what 
is  known  as  semi-rigids,  having  a  spar  which  ran 
practically  the  full  length  of  the  gas  bag  to  which  it 
was  attached  in  such  a  way  as  to  distribute  the  load 
evenly.  The  car  was  suspended  from  the  spar,  at  the 
rear  end  of  which  both  horizontal  and  vertical  rudders 
were  fixed,  whilst  stabilising  fins  were  provided  at  the 
stern  of  the  gas  envelope  itself.  The  first  of  the  Lebaudy 
vessels  was  named  the  *  Jaune  ' ;  its  length  was  183 
feet  and  its  maximum  diameter  30  feet,  while  the  cubic 
capacity  was  80,000  feet.  The  power  unit  was  a  40 
horse-power  Daimler  motor,  driving  two  propellers 
and  giving  a  maximum  speed  of  26  miles  per  hour, 

348 


THE   MILITARY  DIRIGIBLE 

This  vessel  made  29  trips,  the  last  of  which  took  plac« 
in  November,  1902,  when  the  airship  was  wrecked 
through  collision  with  a  tree. 

The  second  airship  of  Lebaudy  construction  was 
7  feet  longer  than  the  first,  and  had  a  capacity  of  94,000 
cubic  feet  of  gas  with  a  triple  air  bag  of  17,500  cubic 
feet  to  compensate  for  loss  of  gas;  this  latter  was  kept 
inflated  by  a  rotary  fan.  The  vessel  was  eventually 
taken  over  by  the  French  Government  and  may  be 
counted  the  first  dirigible  airship  considered  fit  on  its 
tests  for  military  service. 

Later  vessels  of  the  Lebaudy  type  were  the  '  Patrie  * 
and  '  Republique,'  in  which  both  size  and  method  of 
construction  surpassed  those  of  the  two  first  attempts. 
The  '  Patrie  '  was  fitted  with  a  60  horse-power  engine 
which  gave  a  speed  of  28  miles  an  hour,  while  the 
vessel  had  a  radius  of  280  miles,  carrying  a  crew  of 
nine.  In  the  winter  of  1907  the  *  Patrie  *  was  anchored 
at  Verdun,  and  encountered  a  gale  which  broke  her 
hold  on  her  mooring-ropes.  She  drifted  derelict 
westward  across  France,  the  Channel,  and  the  British 
Isles,  and  was  lost  in  the  Atlantic. 

The  '  Republique  '  had  an  80  horse-power  motor, 
which,  however,  only  gave  her  the  same  speed  as  the 
'  Patrie.1  She  was  launched  in  July,  1908,  and  within 
three  months  came  to  an  end  which  constituted  a  tragedy 
for  France.  A  propeller  burst  while  the  vessel  was  in 
the  air,  and  one  blade,  flying  toward  the  envelope,  tore 
in  it  a  great  gash;  the  airship  crashed  to  earth,  and  the 
two  officers  and  two  non-commissioned  officers  who 
were  in  the  car  were  instantaneously  killed. 

The  Clement  Bayard,  and  subsequently  the  Astra- 
Torres,  non-rigids,  followed  on  the  early  Lebaudy*  and 

349 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

carried  French  dirigible  construction  up  to  1912. 
The  Clement  Bayard  was  a  simple  non-rigid  having 
four  lobes  at  the  stern  end  to  assist  stability.  These 
were  found  to  retard  the  speed  of  the  airship,  which 
in  the  second  and  more  successful  construction  was 
driven  by  a  Clement  Bayard  motor  of  100  horse-power 
at  a  speed  of  30  miles  an  hour.  On  August  23rd, 
1909,  while  being  tried  for  acceptance  by  the  military 
authorities,  this  vessel  achieved  a  record  by  flying  at  a 
height  of  5,000  feet  for  two  hours.  The  Astra-Torres 
non-rigids  were  designed  by  a  Spaniard,  Senor  Torres, 
and  built  by  the  Astra  Company.  The  envelope  was  of 
trefoil  shape,  this  being  due  to  the  interior  rigging 
from  the  suspension  band;  the  exterior  appearance  is 
that  of  two  lobes  side  by  side,  overlaid  by  a  third.  The 
interior  rigging,  which  was  adopted  with  a  view  to 
decreasing  air  resistance,  supports  a  low-hung  car  from 
the  centre  of  the  envelope;  steering  is  accomplished 
by  means  of  horizontal  planes  fixed  on  the  envelope 
at  the  stern,  and  vertical  planes  depending  beneath 
the  envelope,  also  at  the  stern  end. 

One  of  the  most  successful  of  French  pre-war 
dirigibles  was  a  Clement  Bayard  built  in  1912.  In 
this  twin  propellers  were  placed  at  the  front  and  hori- 
zontal and  vertical  rudders  in  a  sort  of  box  formation 
under  the  envelope  at  the  stern.  The  envelope  was 
stream-lined,  while  the  car  of  the  machine  was  placed 
well  forward  with  horizontal  controlling  planes  above 
it  and  immediately  behind  the  propellers.  This  airship, 
which  was  named  '  Dupuy  de  Lome/  may  be  ranked 
as  about  the  most  successful  non-rigid  dirigible  con- 
structed prior  to  the  War. 

Experiments  with  non-rigids  in  Germany  was  mainly 


THE   MILITARY  DIRIGIBLE 

carried  on  by  Major  Parseval,  who  produced  his  first 
vessel  in  1906.  The  main  feature  of  this  airship  consisted 
in  variation  in  length  of  the  suspension  cables  at  the 
will  of  the  operator,  so  that  the  envelope  could  be 
given  an  upward  tilt  while  the  car  remained  horizontal 
in  order  to  give  the  vessel  greater  efficiency  in  climbing. 
In  this  machine,  the  propeller  was  placed  above  and 
forward  of  the  car,  and  the  controlling  planes  were 
fixed  directly  to  the  envelope  near  the  forward  end. 
A  second  vessel  differed  from  the  first  mainly  in  the 
matter  of  its  larger  size,  variable  suspension  being 
again  employed,  together  with  a  similar  method  of 
control.  The  vessel  was  moderately  successful,  and 
under  Major  Parseval's  direction  a  third  was  constructed 
for  passenger  carrying,  with  two  engines  of  120  horse- 
power, each  driving  propellers  of  13  feet  diameter. 
This  was  the  most  successful  of  the  early  German 
dirigibles;  it  made  a  number  of  voyages  with  a  dozen 
passengers  in  addition  to  its  crew,  as  well  as  proving  its 
value  for  military  purposes  by  use  as  a  scout  machine 
in  manoeuvres.  Later  Parsevals  were  constructed  of 
stream-line  form,  about  300  feet  in  length,  and  with 
engines  sufficiently  powerful  to  give  them  speeds  up  to 
50  miles  an  hour. 

Major  Von  Gross,  commander  of  a  Balloon  Battalion, 
produced  semi-rigid  dirigibles  from  1907  onward. 
The  second  of  these,  driven  by  two  75  horse-power 
Daimler  motors,  was  capable  of  a  speed  of  27  miles  an 
hour;  in  September  of  1908  she  made  a  trip  from  and 
back  to  Berlin  which  lasted  13  hours,  in  which  period 
she  covered  176  miles  with  four  passengers  and  reached 
a  height  of  4,000  feet.  Her  successor,  launched  in 
April  of  1909,  carried  a  wireless  installation,  and  the 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

next  to  this,  driven  by  four  motors  of  75  horse-power 
each,  reached  a  speed  of  45  miles  an  hour.  As  this 
vessel  was  constructed  for  military  purposes,  very  few 
details  either  of  its  speed  or  method  of  construction 
were  made  public. 

Practically  all  these  vessels  were  discounted  by  the 
work  of  Ferdinand  von  Zeppelin,  who  set  out  from 
the  first  with  the  idea  of  constructing  a  rigid  dirigible. 
Beginning  in  1898,  he  built  a  balloon  on  an  aluminium 
framework  covered  with  linen  and  silk,  and  divided 
into  interior  compartments  holding  linen  bags  which 
were  capable  of  containing  nearly  400,000  cubic  feet 
of  hydrogen.  The  total  length  of  this  first  Zeppelin 
airship  was  420  feet  and  the  diameter  38  feet.  Two 
cars  were  rigidly  attached  to  the  envelope,  each  carrying 
a  1 6  horse-power  motor,  driving  propellers  which  were 
rigidly  connected  to  the  aluminium  framework  of  the 
balloon.  Vertical  and  horizontal  screws  were  used  for 
lifting  and  forward  driving  and  a  sliding  weight  was 
used  to  raise  or  lower  the  stem  of  the  vessel  out  of  the 
horizontal  in  order  to  rise  or  descend  without  altering 
the  load  by  loss  of  ballast  or  the  lift  by  loss  of  gas. 

The  first  trial  of  this  vessel  was  made  in  July  of 
1900,  and  was  singularly  unfortunate.  The  winch  by 
which  the  sliding  weight  was  operated  broke,  and  the 
balloon  was  so  bent  that  the  working  of  the  propellers 
was  interfered  with,  as  was  the  steering.  A  speed  of 
13  feet  per  second  was  attained,  but  on  descending 
the  airship  ran  against  some  piles  and  was  further 
damaged.  Repairs  were  completed  by  the  end  of 
September,  1900,  and  on  a  second  trial  flight  made  on 
October  2ist  a  speed  of  30  feet  per  second  was  reached. 

Zeppelin  was  far  from  satisfied  with  the  performance 

35* 


1 

(D 

N 


I 


THE   MILITARY   DIRIGIBLE 

of  this  vessel,  and  he  therefore  set  about  collecting 
funds  for  the  construction  of  a  second,  which  was 
completed  in  1905.  By  this  time  the  internal  combustion 
engine  had  been  greatly  improved,  and  without  any 
increase  of  weight,  Zeppelin  was  able  to  instal  two  motors 
of  85  horse-power  each.  The  total  capacity  was  367,000 
cubic  feet  of  hydrogen,  carried  in  16  gas  bags  inside 
the  framework,  and  the  weight  of  the  whole  construction 
was  9  tons — a  ton  less  than  that  of  the  first  Zeppelin 
airship.  Three  vertical  planes  at  front  and  rear  con- 
trolled horizontal  steering,  while  rise  and  fall  was 
controlled  by  horizontal  planes  arranged  in  box  form. 
Accident  attended  the  first  trial  of  this  second  airship, 
which  took  place  over  the  Bodensee  on  November  3oth, 
1905.  '  It  had  been  intended  to  tow  the  raft,  to  which 
it  was  anchored,  further  from  the  shore  against  the  wind. 
But  the  water  was  too  low  to  allow  the  use  of  the  raft. 
The  balloon  was  therefore  mounted  on  pontoons,  pulled 
out  into  the  lake,  and  taken  in  tow  by  a  motor-boat. 
It  was  caught  by  a  strong  wind  which  was  blowing  from 
the  shore,  and  driven  ahead  at  such  a  rate  that  it  over- 
took the  motor-boat.  The  tow  rope  was  therefore  at 
once  cut,  but  it  unexpectedly  formed  into  knots  and 
became  entangled  with  the  airship,  pulling  the  front 
end  down  into  the  water.  The  balloon  was  then  caught 
by  the  wind  and  lifted  into  the  air,  when  the  propellers 
were  set  in  motion.  The  front  end  was  at  this  instant  point- 
ing in  a  downward  direction,  and  consequently  it  shot  into 
the  water,  where  it  was  found  necessary  to  open  the  valves/1 
The  damage  done  was  repaired  within  six  weeks, 
and  the  second  trial  was  made  on  January  iyth,  1906. 
The  lifting  force  was  too  great  for  the  weight,  and  the 

1Hildebrandt.     Airships  Past  and  Present. 

353 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

dirigible  jumped  immediately  to  1,500  feet.  The 
propellers  were  started,  and  the  dirigible  brought  to 
a  lower  level,  when  it  was  found  possible  to  drive  against 
the  wind.  The  steering  arrangements  were  found  too 
sensitive,  and  the  motors  were  stopped,  when  the  vessel 
was  carried  by  the  wind  until  it  was  over  land — it  had 
been  intended  that  the  trial  should  be  completed  over 
water.  A  descent  was  successfully  accomplished  and 
the  dirigible  was  anchored  for  the  night,  but  a  gale 
caused  it  so  much  damage  that  it  had  to  be  broken  up. 
It  had  achieved  a  speed  of  30  feet  per  second  with  the 
motors  developing  only  36  horse-power  and,  gathering 
from  this  what  speed  might  have  been  accomplished 
with  the  full  170  horse-power,  Zeppelin  set  about  the 
construction  of  No.  3,  with  which  a  number  of  successful 
voyages  were  made,  proving  the  value  of  the  type  for 
military  purposes. 

No.  4  was  the  most  notable  of  the  early  Zeppelins, 
as  much  on  account  of  its  disastrous  end  as  by  reason 
of  any  superior  merit  in  comparison  with  No.  3.  The 
main  innovation  consisted  in  attaching  a  triangular 
keel  to  the  under  side  of  the  envelope,  with  two  gaps 
beneath  which  the  cars  were  suspended.  Two  Daimler 
Mercedes  motors  of  1 1  o  horse-power  each  were  placed 
one  in  each  car,  and  the  vessel  carried  sufficient  fuel 
for  a  6o-hour  cruise  with  the  motors  running  at  full 
speed.  Each  motor  drove  a  pair  of  three-bladed  metal 
propellers  rigidly  attached  to  the  framework  of  the 
envelope  and  about  15  feet  in  diameter.  There  was 
a  vertical  rudder  at  the  stern  of  the  envelope  and  hori- 
zontal controlling  planes  were  fixed  on  the  sides  of  the 
envelope.  The  best  performances  and  the  end  of  this 
dirigible  were  summarised  as  follows  by  Major  Squier; — 

354 


THE   MILITARY   DIRIGIBLE 

*  Its  best  performances  were  two  long  trips  performed 
during  the  summer  of  1908.  -The  first,  on  July  4th, 
lasted  exactly  12  hours,  during  which  time  it  covered 
a  distance  of  235  miles,  crossing  the  mountains  to 
Lucerne  and  Zurich,  and  returning  to  the  balloon- 
house  near  Friedrichshafen,  on  Lake  Constance.  The 
average  speed  on  this  trip  was  32  miles  per  hour.  On 
August  4th,  this  airship  attempted  a  24-hour  flight, 
which  was  one  of  the  requirements  made  for  its  accept- 
ance by  the  Government.  It  left  Friedrichshafen  in  the 
morning  with  the  intention  of  following  the  Rhine  as 
far  as  Mainz,  and  then  returning  to  its  starting-point, 
straight  across  the  country.  A  stop  of  3  hours  30 
minutes  was  made  in  the  afternoon  of  the  first  day  on 
the  Rhine,  to  repair  the  engine.  On  the  return,  a  second 
stop  was  found  necessary  near  Stuttgart,  due  to  difficulties 
with  the  motors,  and  some  loss  of  gas.  While  anchored 
to  the  ground,  a  storm  arose  which  broke  loose  the 
anchorage,  and,  as  the  balloon  rose  in  the  air,  it  exploded 
and  took  fire  (due  to  causes  which  have  never  been 
actually  determined  and  published)  and  fell  to  the 
ground,  where  it  was  completely  destroyed.  On  this 
journey,  which  lasted  in  all  31  hours  15  minutes,  the 
airship  was  in  the  air  20  hours  45  minutes,  and  covered 
a  total  distance  of  378  miles. 

'  The  patriotism  of  the  German  nation  was  aroused. 
Subscriptions  were  immediately  started,  and  in  a  short 
space  of  time  a  quarter  of  a  million  pounds  had  been 
raised.  A  Zeppelin  Society  was  formed  to  direct  the 
expenditure  of  this  fund.  Seventeen  thousand  pounds 
has  been  expended  in  purchasing  land  near  Friederich- 
shafen;  workshops  were  erected,  and  it  was  announced 
that  within  one  year  the  construction  of  eight  airships 

355 


A  HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

of  the  Zeppelin  type  would  be  completed.  Since  the 
disaster  to  *  Zeppelin  IV. '  the  Crown  Prince  of  Germany 
made  a  trip  in  *  Zeppelin  No.  3,'  which  had  been  called 
back  into  service,  and  within  a  very  few  days  the 
German  Emperor  visited  Friedrichshafen  for  the 
purpose  of  seeing  the  airship  in  flight.  He  decorated 
Count  Zeppelin  with  the  Order  of  the  Black  Eagle. 
German  patriotism  and  enthusiasm  has  gone  further, 
and  the  "  German  Association  for  an  Aerial  Fleet  "  has 
been  organised  in  sections  throughout  the  country.  It 
announces  its  intention  of  building  50  garages  (hangars) 
for  housing  airships/ 

By  January  of  1909,  with  well  over  a  quarter  of  a 
million  in  hand  for  the  construction  of  Zeppelin  airships, 
No.  3  was  again  brought  out,  probably  in  order  to 
maintain  public  enthusiasm  in  respect  of  the  possible 
new  engine  of  war.  In  March  of  that  year  No.  3  made 
a  voyage  which  lasted  for  4  hours  over  and  in  the  vicinity 
of  Lake  Constance;  it  carried  26  passengers  for  a 
distance  of  nearly  1 50  miles. 

Before  the  end  of  March,  Count  Zeppelin  determined 
to  voyage  from  Friedrichshafen  to  Munich,  together 
with  the  crew  of  the  airship  and  four  military  officers. 
Starting  at  four  in  the  morning  and  ascertaining  their 
route  from  the  lights  of  railway  stations  and  the  ringing 
of  bells  in  the  towns  passed  over,  the  journey  was 
completed  by  nine  o'clock,  but  a  strong  south-west 
gale  prevented  the  intended  landing.  The  airship  was 
driven  before  the  wind  until  three  o'clock  in  the  after- 
noon, when  it  landed  safely  near  Dingolfing;  by  the 
next  morning  the  wind  had  fallen  considerably  and  the 
airship  returned  to  Munich  and  landed  on  the  parade 
ground  as  originally  intended.  At  about  3.30  in  the 

356 


THE   MILITARY  DIRIGIBLE 

afternoon,  the  homeward  journey  was  begun,  Friedrich- 
shafen  being  reached  at  about  7.30. 

These  trials  demonstrated  that  sufficient  progress 
had  been  made  to  justify  the  construction  of  Zeppelin 
airships  for  use  with  the  German  army.  No.  3  had  been 
manoeuvred  safely  if  not  successfully  in  half  a  gale  of 
wind,  and  henceforth  it  was  known  as  *  SMS.  Zeppelin 
I.,'  at  the  bidding  of  the  German  Emperor,  while  the 
construction  of 'SMS.  Zeppelin  II.'  was  rapidly  proceeded 
with.  The  fifth  construction  of  Count  Zeppelin's  was 
446  feet  in  length,  42^  feet  in  diameter,  and  contained 
530,000  cubic  feet  of  hydrogen  gas  in  17  separate 
compartments.  Trial  flights  were  made  on  the  26th 
May,  1909,  and  a  week  later  she  made  a  record  voyage 
of  940  miles,  the  route  being  from  Lake  Constance 
over  Ulm,  Nuremberg,  Leipzig,  Bitterfeld,  Weimar, 
Heilbronn,  and  Stuttgart,  descending  near  Goppingen; 
the  time  occupied  in  the  flight  was  upwards  of  3  8  hours. 

In  landing,  the  airship  collided  with  a  pear-tree, 
which  damaged  the  bows  and  tore  open  two  sections  of 
the  envelope,  but  repairs  on  the  spot  enabled  the  return 
journey  to  Friedrichshafen  to  be  begun  24  hours  later. 
In  spite  of  the  mishap  the  Zeppelin  had  once  more 
proved  itself  as  a  possible  engine  of  war,  and  thenceforth 
Germany  pinned  its  faith  to  the  dirigible,  only  developing 
the  aeroplane  to  such  an  extent  as  to  keep  abreast  of 
other  nations.  By  the  outbreak  of  war,  nearly  30 
Zeppelins  had  been  constructed;  considerably  more 
than  half  of  these  were  destroyed  in  various  ways,  but 
the  experiments  carried  on  with  each  example  of  the 
type  permitted  of  improvements  being  made.  The  first 
fatality  occurred  in  September,  1913,  when  the  fourteenth 
Zeppelin  to  be  constructed,  known  as  Naval  Zeppelin 

357 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

L.I,  was  wrecked  in  the  North  Sea  by  a  sudden  storm 
and  her  crew  of  thirteen  were  drowned.  About  three 
weeks  after  ihis,  Naval  Zeppelin  L.2,  the  eighteenth 
in  order  of  building,  exploded  in  mid-air  while 
manoeuvring  over  Johannisthal.  She  was  carrying  a 
crew  of  25,  who  were  all  killed. 

By  1912  the  success  of  the  Zeppelin  type  brought 
imitators.  Chief  among  them  was  the  Schutte-Lanz, 
a  Mannheim  firm,  which  produced  a  rigid  dirigible 
with  a  wooden  framework,  wire  braced.  This  was  not 
a  cylinder  like  the  Zeppelin,  but  reverted  to  the  cigar 
shape  and  contained  about  the  same  amount  of  gas  as 
the  Zeppelin  type.  The  Schutte-Lanz  was  made  with 
two  gondolas  rigidly  attached  to  the  envelope  in  which 
the  gas  bags  were  placed.  The  method  of  construction 
involved  greater  weight  than  was  the  case  with  the 
Zeppelin,  but  the  second  of  these  vessels,  built  with 
three  gondolas  containing  engines,  and  a  navigating 
cabin  built  into  the  hull  of  the  airship  itself,  proved 
quite  successful  as  a  naval  scout  until  wrecked  on  the 
islands  off  the  coast  of  Denmark  late  in  1914.  The 
last  Schutte-Lanz  to  be  constructed  was  used  by  the 
Germans  for  raiding  England,  and  was  eventually 
brought  down  in  flames  at  Cowley. 


358 


BRITISH    AIRSHIP    DESIGN 

As  was  the  case  with  the  aeroplane,  Great  Britain  left 
France  and  Germany  to  make  the  running  in  the  early 
days  of  airship  construction ;  the  balloon  section  of  the 
Royal  Engineers  was  compelled  to  confine  its  energies 
to  work  with  balloons  pure  and  simple  until  well  after 
the  twentieth  century  had  dawned,  and  such  experiments 
as  were  made  in  England  were  done  by  private  initiative. 
As  far  back  as  1900  Doctor  Barton  built  an  airship  at 
the  Alexandra  Palace  and  voyaged  across  London  in  it. 
Four  years  later  Mr  E.  T.  Willows  of  Cardiff  produced 
the  first  successful  British  dirigible,  a  semi-rigid  74 
feet  in  length  and  18  feet  in  diameter,  engined 
with  a  7  horse-power  Peugot  twin-cylindered  motor. 
This  drove  a  two-bladed  propeller  at  the  stern  for 
propulsion,  and  also  actuated  a  pair  of  auxiliary  pro- 
pellers at  the  front  which  could  be  varied  in  their 
direction  so  as  to  control  the  right  and  left  move- 
ments of  the  airship.  This  device  was  patented  and 
the  patent  was  taken  over  by  the  British  Government, 
which  by  1908  found  Mr  Willow's  work  of  sufficient 
interest  to  regard  it  as  furnishing  data  for  experiment 
at  the  balloon  factory  at  Farnborough.  In  1909,  Willows 
steered  one  of  his  dirigibles  to  London  from  Cardiff 
in  a  little  less  than  ten  hours,  making  an  average  speed 
H.A.  359  2  A 


A  HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

of  over  14  miles  an  hour.  The  best  speed  accomplished 
was  probably  considerably  greater  than  this,  for  at 
intervals  of  a  few  miles,  Willows  descended  near  the 
earth  to  ascertain  his  whereabouts  with  the  help  of  a 
megaphone.  It  must  be  added  that  he  carried  a  compass 
in  addition  to  his  megaphone.  He  set  out  for  Paris  in 
November  of  1910,  reached  the  French  coast,  and 
landed  near  Douai.  Some  damage  was  sustained  in 
this  landing,  but,  after  repair,  the  trip  to  Paris  was 
completed. 

Meanwhile  the  Government  balloon  factory  at 
Farnborough  began  airship  construction  in  1907; 
Colonel  Capper,  R.E.,  and  S.  F.  Cody  were  jointly 
concerned  in  the  production  of  a  semi-rigid.  Fifteen 
thicknesses  of  goldbeaters'  skin — about  the  most  expensive 
covering  obtainable — were  used  for  the  envelope,  which 
was  25  feet  in  diameter.  A  slight  shower  of  rain  in 
which  the  airship  was  caught  led  to  its  wreckage,  owing 
to  the  absorbent  quality  of  the  goldbeaters'  skin,  where- 
upon Capper  and  Cody  set  to  work  to  reproduce  the 
airship  and  its  defects  on  a  larger  scale.  The  first  had 
been  named  '  Nulli  Secundus  '  and  the  second  was 
named  *  Nulli  Secundus  II.'  Punch  very  appropriately 
suggested  that  the  first  vessel  ought  to  have  been  named 
'  Nulli  Primus/  while  a  possible  third  should  be  christened 
*  Nulli  Tertius.'  'Nulli  Secundus  II.'  was  fitted  with 
a  100  horse-power  engine  and  had  an  envelope  of  42 
feet  in  diameter,  the  goldbeaters'  skin  being  covered 
in  fabric  and  the  car  being  suspended  by  four  bands 
which  encircled  the  balloon  envelope.  In  October  of 
1907,  'Nulli  Secundus  II.'  made  a  trial  flight  from 
Farnborough  to  London  and  was  anchored  at  the 
Crystal  Pahce,  The  wind  sprung  up  and  took  the 

360 


I 


QQ 


BRITISH  AIRSHIP  DESIGN 

vessel  away  from  its  mooring  ropes,  wrecking  it  after 
the  one  flight. 

Stagnation  followed  until  early  in  1909,  when  a 
small  airship  fitted  with  two  12  horse-power  motors  and 
named  the  '  Baby  *  was  turned  out  from  the  balloon 
factory.  This  was  almost  egg-shaped,  the  blunt  end 
being  forward,  and  three  inflated  fins  being  placed  at 
the  tail  as  control  members.  A  long  car  with  rudder 
and  elevator  at  its  rear-end  carried  the  engines  and 
crew;  the  'Baby*  made  some  fairly  successful  flights  and 
gave  a  good  deal  of  useful  data  for  the  construction  of 
later  vessels. 

Next  to  this  was  '  Army  Airship  2  A  '  launched 
early  in  1910  and  larger,  longer,  and  narrower  in  design 
than  the  Baby.  The  engine  was  an  80  horse-power 
Green  motor  which  drove  two  pairs  of  propellers; 
small  inflated  control  members  were  fitted  at  the  stern 
end  of  the  envelope,  which  was  1 54  feet  in  length.  The 
suspended  car  was '84  feet  long,  carrying  both  engines 
and  crew,  and  the  Willows  idea  of  swivelling  propellers 
for  governing  the  direction  was  used  in  this  vessel. 
In  June  of  that  year  a  new,  small-type  dirigible,  the 
'  Beta/  was  produced,  driven  by  a  30  horse-power 
Green  engine  with  which  she  flew  over  3,000  miles. 
She  was  the  most  successful  British  dirigible  constructed 
up  to  that  time,  and  her  successor,  the  '  Gamma,'  was 
built  on  similar  lines.  The  'Gamma*  was  a  larger  vessel, 
however,  produced  in  1912,  with  flat,  controlling  fins 
and  rudder  at  the  rear  end  of  the  envelope,  and  with  the 
conventional  long  car  suspended  at  some  distance 
beneath  the  gas  bag.  By  this  time,  the  mooring  mast, 
carrying  a  cap  of  which  the  concave  side  fitted  over 
the  conye^  pose  of  the  airship,  had  been  originated. 

361 


A  HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

The  cap  was  swivelled,  and,  when  attached  to  it,  an 
airship  was  held  nose  on  to  the  wind,  thus  reducing  by 
more  than  half  the  dangers  attendant  on  mooring 
dirigibles  in  the  open. 

Private  subscription  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Morning  Post  got  together  sufficient  funds  in  1910  for 
the  purchase  of  a  Lebaudy  airship,  which  was  built  in 
France,  flown  across  the  Channel,  and  presented  to  the 
Army  Airship  Fleet.  This  dirigible  was  337  feet  long, 
and  was  driven  by  two  135  horse-power  Panhard  motors, 
each  of  which  actuated  two  propellers.  The  journey 
from  Moisson  to  Aldershot  was  completed  at  a  speed 
of  36  miles  an  hour,  but  the  airship  was  damaged  while 
being  towed  into  its  shed.  On  May  of  the  following 
year,  the  Lebaudy  was  brought  out  for  a  flight,  but, 
in  landing,  the  guide  rope  fouled  in  trees  and  sheds 
and  brought  the  airship  broadside  on  to  the  wind; 
she  was  driven  into  some  trees  and  wrecked  to  such  an 
extent  that  rebuilding  was  considered  an  impossibility. 
A  Clement  Bayard,  bought  by  the  army  airship  section, 
became  scrap  after  even  less  flying  than  had  been 
accomplished  by  the  Lebaudy. 

In  April  of  1910,  the  Admiralty  determined  on  a 
naval  air  service,  and  set  about  the  production  of  rigid 
airships  which  should  be  able  to  compete  with  Zeppelins 
as  naval  scouts.  The  construction  was  entrusted  to 
Vickers,  Ltd.,  who  set  about  the  task  at  their  Barrow 
works  and  built  something  which,  when  tested  after  a 
year's  work,  was  found  incapable  of  lifting  its  own 
weight.  This  defect  was  remedied  by  a  series  of 
alterations,  and  meanwhile  the  unofficial  title  of '  Mayfly* 
was  given  to  the  vessel. 

Taken  over  by  the  Admiralty  before  she  had  passed 

362 


• 


The  S.S.  type  of  airship. 
H.M.  King  George  inspecting. 


To  face  page  363 


BRITISH  AIRSHIP  DESIGN 

any  flying  tests,  the  'Mayfly'was  brought  out  on  September 
24th,  1911,  for  a  trial  trip,  being  towed  out  from  her 
shed  by  a  tug.  When  half  out  from  the  shed,  the  envelope 
was  caught  by  a  light  cross-wind,  and,  in  spite  of  the 
pull  from  the  tug,  the  great  fabric  broke  in  half,  nearly 
drowning  the  crew,  who  had  to  dive  in  order  to  get 
clear  of  the  wreckage. 

There  was  considerable  similarity  in  form,  though 
not  in  performance,  between  the  Mayfly  and  the  pre- 
war Zeppelin.  The  former  was  510  feet  in  length, 
cylindrical  in  form,  with  a  diameter  of  48  feet,  and 
divided  into  19  gas-bag  compartments.  The  motive 
power  consisted  of  two  200  horse-power  Wolseley 
engines.  After  its  failure,  the  Naval  Air  Service  bought 
an  Astra-Torres  airship  from  France  and  a  Parseval 
from  Germany,  both  of  which  proved  very  useful  in  the 
early  days  of  the  War,  doing  patrol  work  over  the 
Channel  before  the  Blimps  came  into  being. 

Early  in  1915  the  *  Blimp'  or  'S.S.'  type  of  coastal 
airship  was  evolved  in  response  to  the  demand  for  a 
vessel  which  could  be  turned  out  quickly  and  in  quantities. 
There  was  urgent  demand,  voiced  by  Lord  Fisher,  for 
a  type  of  vessel  capable  of  maintaining  anti-submarine 
patrol  off  the  British  coasts,  and  the  first  S.S.  airships 
were  made  by  combining  a  gasbag  with  the  most  avail- 
able type  of  aeroplane  fuselage  and  engine,  and  fitting 
steering  gear.  The  'Blimp'  consisted  of  a  B.E.  fuselage 
with  engine  and  geared-down  propeller,  and  seating 
for  pilot  and  observer,  attached  to  an  envelope  about 
150  feet  in  length.  With  a  speed  of  between  35  and 
40  miles  an  hour,  the  'Blimp'  had  a  cruising  capacity  of 
about  ten  hours;  it  was  fitted  with  wireless  set,  camera, 
machine-gun,  and  bombs,  and  for  submarine  spotting 

363 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

and  patrol  work  generally  it  proved  invaluable,  though 
owing  to  low  engine  power  and  comparatively  small 
size,  its  uses  were  restricted  to  reasonably  fair  weather. 
For  work  farther  out  at  sea  and  in  all  weathers,  airships 
known  as  the  coast  patrol  type,  and  more  commonly 
as  *  coastals/  were  built,  and  later  the  *  N.S.'  or  North 
Sea  type,  still  larger  and  more  weather-worthy,  followed. 
By  the  time  the  last  year  of  the  War  came,  Britain  led 
the  world  in  the  design  of  non-rigid  and  semi-rigid 
dirigibles.  The  *  S.S.'  or  'Blimp'  had  been  improved  to 
a  speed  of  50  miles  an  hour,  carrying  a  crew  of  three, 
and  the  endurance  record  for  the  type  was  18^  hours, 
while  one  of  them  had  reached  a  height  of  10,000  feet. 
The  North  Sea  type  of  non-rigid  was  capable  of  travelling 
over  20  hours  at  full  speed,  or  forty  hours  at  cruising 
speed,  and  the  number  of  non-rigids  belonging  to  the 
.  British  Navy  exceeded  that  of  any  other  country. 
\  It  was  owing  to  the  incapacity — apparent  or  real — 
of  the  British  military  or  naval  designers  to  produce 
a  satisfactory  rigid  airship  that  the  'N.S.'  airship  was 
evolved.  The  first  of  this  type  was  produced  in  1916, 
and  on  her  trials  she  was  voted  an  unqualified  success, 
in  consequence  of  which  the  building  of  several  more 
was  pushed  on.  The  envelope,  of  360,000  cubic  feet 
capacity,  was  made  on  the  Astra-Torres  principle  of 
three  lobes,  giving  a  trefoil  section.  The  ship  carried 
four  fins,  to  three  of  which  the  elevator  and  rudder 
flaps  were  attached;  petrol  tanks  were  placed  inside 
the  envelope,  under  which  was  rigged  a  long  covered- 
in  car,  built  up  of  a  light  steel  tubular  framework  35 
feet  in  length.  The  forward  portion  was  covered  with 
duralumin  sheeting,  an  aluminium  alloy  which,  unlike 
aluminium  itself,  is  not  affected  by  the  action  of  sea  air 

364 


BRITISH  AIRSHIP  DESIGN 

and  water,  and  the  remainder  with  fabric  laced  to  the 
framework.  Windows  and  port-holes  were  provided 
to  give  light  to  the  crew,  and  the  controls  and  navigating 
instruments  were  placed  forward,  with  the  sleeping 
accommodation  aft.  The  engines  were  mounted  in 
a  power  unit  structure,  separate  from  the  car  and  con- 
nected by  wooden  gangways  supported  by  wire  cables. 
A  complete  electrical  installation  of  two  dynamos  and 
batteries  for  lights,  signalling  lamps,  wireless,  telephones, 
etc.,  was  carried,  and  the  motive  power  consisted  of 
either  two  250  horse-power  Rolls-Royce  engines  or 
two  240  horse-power  Fiat  engines.  The  principal 
dimensions  of  this  type  are  length  262  feet,  horizontal 
diameter  56  feet  9  inches,  vertical  diameter  69  feet  3 
inches.  The  gross  lift  is  24,300  Ibs.  and  the  disposable 
lift  without  crew,  petrol,  oil,  and  ballast  8,500  Ibs. 
The  normal  crew  carried  for  patrol  work  was  ten  officers 
and  men.  This  type  holds  the  record  of  101  hours 
continuous  flight  on  patrol  duty. 

In  the  matter  of  rigid  design  it  was  not  until  1913 
that  the  British  Admiralty  got  over  the  fact  that  the 
*  Mayfly '  would  not,  and  decided  on  a  further  attempt  at 
the  construction  of  a  rigid  dirigible.  The  contract 
for  this  was  signed  in  March  of  1914;  work  was  sus- 
pended in  the  following  February  and  begun  again  in 
July,  1915,  but  it  was  not  until  January  of  1917  that 
the  ship  was  finished,  while  her  trails  were  not  completed 
until  March  of  1917,  when  she  was  taken  over  by  the 
Admiralty.  The  details  of  the  construction  and  trial 
of  this  vessel,  known  as  '  No.  9,'  go  to  show  that  she 
did  not  quite  fill  the  contract  requirements  in  respect 
of  disposable  lift  until  a  number  of  alterations  had  been 
made.  The  contract  specified  that  a  speed  of  at  least 

365 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

45  miles  per  hour  was  to  be  attained  at  full  engine 
power,  while  a  minimum  disposable  lift  of  5  tons  was 
to  be  available  for  movable  weights,  and  the  airship 
was  to  be  capable  of  rising  to  a  height  of  2,000  feet. 
Driven  by  four  Wolseley  Maybach  engines  of  180 
horse-power  each,  the  lift  of  the  vessel  was  not  sufficient, 
so  it  was  decided  to  remove  the  two  engines  in  the  after 
car  and  replace  them  by  a  single  engine  of  250  horse- 
power. With  this  the  vessel  reached  the  contract  speed 
of  45  miles  per  hour  with  a  cruising  radius  of  1 8  hours, 
equivalent  to  800  miles  when  the  engines  were  running 
at  full  speed.  The  vessel  served  admirably  as  a  training 
airship,  for,  by  the  time  she  was  completed,  the  No.  23 
class  of  rigid  airship  had  come  to  being,  and  thus  No.  9 
was  already  out  of  date. 

Three  of  the  23  class  were  completed  by  the  end  of 
1917;  it  was  stipulated  that  they  should  be  built  with 
a  speed  of  at  least  55  miles  per  hour,  a  minimum  dis- 
posable lift  of  8  tons,  and  a  capability  of  rising  at  an 
average  rate  of  not  less  than  1,000  feet  per  minute  to  a 
height  of  3,000  feet.  The  motive  power  consisted  of 
four  250  horse-power  Rolls-Royce  engines,  one  in  each 
of  the  forward  and  after  cars  and  two  in  a  centre  car. 
Four-bladed  propellers  were  used  throughout  the 
ship. 

A  23X  type  followed  on  the  23  class,  but  by  the 
time  two  ships  had  been  completed,  this  was  practically 
obsolete.  The  No.  31  class  followed  the  23X;  it  was 
built  on  Schutte-Lanz  lines,  615  feet  in  length,  66  feet 
diameter,  and  a  million  and  a  half  cubic  feet  capacity. 
The  hull  was  similar  to  the  later  types  of  Zeppelin  in 
shape,  with  a  tapering  stern  and  a  bluff,  rounded  bow. 
Five  cars  each  carrying  a  250  horse-power  Rolls-Royce 

366 


r 


BRITISH  AIRSHIP  DESIGN 

engine,  driving  a  single  fixed  propeller,  were  fitted,  and 
on  her  trials  R.Ji  performed  well,  especially  in  the 
matter  of  speed.  But  the  experiment  of  constructing 
in  wood  in  the  Schutte-Lanz  way  adopted  with  this 
vessel  resulted  in  failure  eventually,  and  the  type  was 
abandoned. 

Meanwhile,  Germany  had  been  pushing  forward 
Zeppelin  design  and  straining  every  nerve  in  the 
improvement  of  rigid  dirigible  construction,  until  L.33 
was  evolved;  she  was  generally  known  as  a  super- 
Zeppelin,  and  on  September  24th,  1916,  six  weeks 
after  her  launching,  she  was  damaged  by  gun-fire  in 
a  raid  over  London,  being  eventually  compelled  to 
come  to  earth  at  Little  Wigborough  in  Essex.  The 
crew  gave  themselves  up  after  having  set  fire  to  the  ship, 
and  though  the  fabric  was  totally  destroyed,  the  structure 
of  the  hull  remained  intact,  so  that  just  as  Germany 
was  able  to  evolve  the  Gotha  bomber  from  the  Handley- 
Page  delivered  at  Lille,  British  naval  constructors  were 
able  to  evolve  the  R-33  type  of  airship  from  the  Zeppelin 
framework  delivered  at  Little  Wigborough.  Two 
vessels,  R-33  and  R-34,  were  laid  down  for  completion; 
three  others  were  also  put  down  for  construction,  but, 
while  R.33  and  R-34  were  built  almost  entirely  from 
the  data  gathered  from  the  wrecked  L.33,  tne  three 
later  vessels  embody  more  modern  design,  including  a 
number  of  improvements,  and  more  especially  greater 
disposable  lift.  It  has  been  commented  that  while 
the  British  authorities  were  building  R-33  and  R-34, 
Germany  constructed  30  Zeppelins  on  4  slips,  for 
which  reason  it  may  be  reckoned  a  matter  for  congratu- 
lation that  the  rigid  airship  did  not  decide  the  fate  of 
the  War.  The  following  particulars  of  construction 

36? 


A  HISTORY    OF  AERONAUTICS 

of  the  R.33  and  R.34  types  are  as  given  by  Major  Whale 
in  his  survey  of  British  Airships : — 

*  In  all  its  main  features  the  hull  structure  of  R-33 
and  R.34  follows  the  design  of  the  wrecked  German 
Zeppelin  airship  L.33.  The  hull  follows  more  nearly 
a  true  stream-line  shape  than  in  the  previous  ships 
constructed  of  duralumin,  in  which  a  greater  proportion 
of  the  greater  length  was  parallel-sided.  The  Germans 
adopted  this  new  shape  from  the  Schutte-Lanz  design 
and  have  not  departed  from  this  practice.  This  consists 
of  a  short,  parallel  body  with  a  long,  rounded  bow  and 
a  long  tapering  stem  culminating  in  a  point.  The 
overall  length  of  the  ship  is  643  feet  with  a  diameter 
of  79  feet  and  an  extreme  height  of  92  feet. 

The  type  of  girders  in  this  class  has  been  much 
altered  from  those  in  previous  ships.  The  hull  is  fitted 
with  an  internal  triangular  keel  throughout  practically 
the  entire  length.  This  forms  the  main  corridor  of  the 
ship,  and  is  fitted  with  a  footway  down  the  centre  for 
its  entire  length.  It  contains  water  ballast  and  petrol 
tanks,  bomb  storage  and  crew  accommodation,  and  the 
various  control  wires,  petrol  pipes,  and  electric  leads  are 
carried  along  the  lower  part. 

Throughout  this  internal  corridor  runs  a  bridge 
girder,  from  which  the  petrol  and  water  ballast  tanks 
are  supported.  These  tanks  are  so  arranged  that  they 
can  be  dropped  clear  of  the  ship.  Amidships  is  the 
cabin  space  with  sufficient  room  for  a  crew  of  twenty- 
five.  Hammocks  can  be  swung  from  the  bridge  girder 
before  mentioned. 

In  accordance  with  the  latest  Zeppelin  practice, 
monoplane  rudders  and  elevators  are  fitted  to  the 
horizontal  and  vertical  fins. 

368 


BRITISH  AIRSHIP  DESIGN 

The  ship  is  supported  in  the  air  by  nineteen  gas 
bags,  which  give  a  total  capacity  of  approximately  two 
million  cubic  feet  of  gas.  The  gross  lift  works  out  at 
approximately  59^  tons,  of  which  the  total  fixed  weight 
is  33  tons,  giving  a  disposable  lift  of  26|  tons. 

The  arrangement  of  cars  is  as  follows:  At  the 
forward  end  the  control  car  is  slung,  which  contains 
all  navigating  instruments  and  the  various  controls. 
Adjoining  this  is  the  wireless  cabin,  which  is  also  fitted 
for  wireless  telephony.  Immediately  aft  of  this  is  the 
forward  power  car  containing  one  engine,  which  gives 
the  appearance  that  the  whole  is  one  large  car. 

Amidships  are  two  wing  cars,  each  containing  a 
single  engine.  These  are  small  and  just  accommodate 
the  engines  with  sufficient  room  for  mechanics  to 
attend  to  them.  Further  aft  is  another  larger  car 
which  contains  an  auxiliary  control  position  and  two 
engines. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  five  engines  are  installed 
in  the  ship;  these  are  all  of  the  same  type  and  horse- 
power, namely,  250  horse-power  Sunbeam.  R-33  was 
constructed  by  Messrs  Armstrong,  Whitworth,  Ltd.; 
while  her  sister  ship  R.34  was  built  by  Messrs  Beardmore 
on  the  Clyde/ 

Of  the  two  vessels,  R-34  appeared  rather  more 
airworthy  than  her  sister  ship;  the  lift  of  the  ship 
justified  the  carrying  of  a  greater  quantity  of  fuel  than 
had  been  provided  for,  and,  as  she  was  considered 
suitable  for  making  a  Transatlantic  crossing,  extra 
petrol  tanks  were  fitted  in  the  hull  and  a  new  type  of 
outer  cover  was  fitted  with  a  view  to  her  making  the 
Atlantic  crossing.  She  made  a  21  hour  cruise  over  the 
North  of  England  and  the  South  of  Scotland  at  the 

369 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

end  of  May,  1919,  and  subsequently  went  for  a  longer 
cruise  over  Denmark,  the  Baltic,  and  the  north  coast  of 
Germany,  remaining  in  the  air  for  56  hours  in  spite  of 
very  bad  weather  conditions.  Finally,  July  2nd  was 
selected  as  the  starting  date  for  the  cross  Atlantic  flight; 
the  vessel  was  commanded  by  Major  G.  H.  Scott, 
A.F.C.,  with  Captain  G.  S.  Greenland  as  first  officer, 
Second-Lieut.  H.  F.  Luck  as  second  officer,  and  Lieut. 
J.  D.  Shotter  as  engineer  officer.  There  were  also  on 
board  Brig.-Gen.  E.  P.  Maitland,  representing  the 
Air  Ministry,  Major  J.  E.  M.  Pritchard,  representing 
the  Admiralty,  and  Lieut.-Col.  W.  H.  Hemsley  of  the 
Army  Aviation  Department.  In  addition  to  eight  tons 
of  petrol,  R.34  carried  a  total  number  of  30  persons 
from  East  Fortune  to  Long  Island,  N.Y.  There  being 
no  shed  in  America  capable  of  accommodating  the 
airship,  she  had  to  be  moored  in  the  open  for  refilling 
with  fuel  and  gas,  and  to  make  the  return  journey 
almost  immediately. 

Brig.-Gen.  Maitland's  account  of  the  flight,  in 
itself  a  record  as  interesting  as  valuable,  divides  the 
outward  journey  into  two  main  stages,  the  first  from 
East  Fortune  to  Trinity  Bay,  Newfoundland,  a  distance 
of  2,050  sea  miles,  and  the  second  and  more  difficult 
stage  to  Mineola  Field,  Long  Island,  1,080  sea  miles. 
An  easy  journey  was  experienced  until  Newfoundland 
was  reached,  but  then  storms  and  electrical  disturbances 
rendered  it  necessary  to  alter  the  course,  in  consequence 
of  which  petrol  began  to  run  short.  Head  winds 
rendered  the  shortage  still  more  acute,  and  on  Saturday, 
July  5th,  a  wireless  signal  was  sent  out  asking  for 
destroyers  to  stand  by  to  tow.  However,  after  an 
anxious  night,  R-34  landed  safely  at  Mineola  Field  at 

370 


BRITISH  AIRSHIP   DESIGN 

9.55  a.m.  on  July  6th,  having  accomplished  the  journey 
in  1 08  hours  12  minutes. 

She  remained  at  Mineola  until  midnight  of  July 
9th,  when,  although  it  had  been  intended  that  a  start 
should  be  made  by  daylight  for  the  benefit  of  New 
York  spectators,  an  approaching  storm  caused  pre- 
parations to  be  advanced  for  immediate  departure.  She 
set  out  at  5.57  a.m.  by  British  summer  time,  and  flew 
over  New  York  in  the  full  glare  of  hundreds  of  search- 
lights before  heading  out  over  the  Atlantic.  A  following 
wind  assisted  the  return  voyage,  and  on  July  I3th,  at 
7.57  a.m.,  R.34  anchored  at  Pulham,  Norfolk,  having 
made  the  return  journey  in  75  hours  3  minutes,  and 
proved  the  suitability  of  the  dirigible  for  Transatlantic 
commercial  work.  R.8o,  launched  on  July  I9th,  1920, 
afforded  further  proof,  if  this  were  needed. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  nearly  all  the  disasters  to 
airships  have  been  caused  by  launching  and  landing — 
the  type  is  safe  enough  in  the  air,  under  its  own  power, 
but  its  bulk  renders  it  unwieldy  for  ground  handling. 
The  German  system  of  handling  Zeppelins  in  and  out 
of  their  sheds  is,  so  far,  the  best  devised:  this  consists 
of  heavy  trucks  running  on  rails  through  the  sheds  and 
out  at  either  end;  on  descending,  the  trucks  are  run 
out,  and  the  airship  is  securely  attached  to  them  outside 
the  shed;  the  trucks  are  then  run  back  into  the  shed, 
taking  the  airship  with  them,  and  preventing  any  possi- 
bility of  the  wind  driving  the  envelope  against  the  side 
of  the  shed  before  it  is  safely  housed;  the  reverse 
process  is  adopted  in  launching,  which  is  thus  rendered 
as  simple  as  it  is  safe. 


371 


VI 

THE    AIRSHIP    COMMERCIALLY 

PRIOR  to  the  war  period,  between  the  years  1910  and 
1914,  a  German  undertaking  called  the  Deutsche 
Luftfahrt  Actien  Gesellschaft  conducted  a  commercial 
Zeppelin  service  in  which  four  airships  known  as  the 
Sachsan,  Hansa,  Victoria  Louise,  and  Schwaben  were 
used.  During  the  four  years  of  its  work,  the  company 
carried  over  17,000  passengers,  and  over  100,000  miles 
were  flown  without  incurring  one  fatality  and  with  only 
minor  and  unavoidable  accidents  to  the  vessels  composing 
the  service.  Although  a  number  of  English  notabilities 
made  voyages  in  these  airships,  the  success  of  this  only 
experiment  in  commercial  aerostation  seems  to  have 
been  forgotten  since  the  war.  There  was  beyond 
doubt  a  military  aim  in  this  apparently  peaceful  use 
of  Zeppelin  airships;  it  is  past  question  now  that  all 
Germany's  mechanical  development  in  respect  of  land, 
sea,  and  air  transport  in  the  years  immediately  preceding 
the  war,  was  accomplished  with  the  ulterior  aim  of 
military  conquest,  but,  at  the  same  time,  the  running 
of  this  service  afforded  proof  of  the  possibility  of  establish- 
ing a  dirigible  service  for  peaceful  ends,  and  afforded 
proof  too,  of  the  value  of  the  dirigible  as  a  vessel  of 
purely  commercial  utility. 

In    considering    the    possibility    of   a    commercial 
dirigible  service,  it  is  necessary  always  to  bear  in  mind 

37* 


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THE  AIRSHIP   COMMERCIALLY 

the  disadvantages  of  first  cost  and  upkeep  as  compared 
with  the  aeroplane.  The  building  of  a  modern  rigid 
is  an  exceedingly  costly  undertaking,  and  the  provision 
of  an  efficient  supply  of  hydrogen  gas  to  keep  its  com- 
partments filled  is  a  very  large  item  in  upkeep  of  which 
the  heavier-than-air  machine  goes  free.  Yet  the  future 
of  commercial  aeronautics  so  far  would  seem  to  lie 
with  the  dirigible  where  very  long  voyages  are  in 
question.  No  matter  how  the  aeroplane  may  be  im- 
proved, the  possibility  of  engine  failure  always  remains 
as  a  danger  for  work  over  water.  In  seaplane  or  flying 
boat  form,  the  danger  is  still  present  in  a  rough  sea, 
though  in  the  American  Transatlantic  flight,  N.C.3, 
taxi-ing  300  miles  to  the  Azores  after  having  fallen  to 
the  water,  proved  that  this  danger  is  not  so  acute  as  is 
generally  assumed.  Yet  the  multiple-engined  rigid, 
as  R-34  showed  on  her  return  voyage,  may  have  part 
of  her  power  plant  put  out  of  action  altogether  and  still 
complete  her  voyage  very  successfully,  which,  in  the 
case  of  mail  carrying  and  services  run  strictly  to  time, 
gives  her  an  enormous  advantage  over  the  heavier- 
than-air  machine. 

*  For  commercial  purposes/  General  Sykes  has 
remarked,  '  the  airship  is  eminently  adapted  for  long 
distance  journeys  involving  non-stop  flights.  It  has 
this  inherent  advantage  over  the  aeroplane,  that  while 
there  appears  to  be  a  limit  to  the  range  of  the  aeroplane 
as  at  present  constructed,  there  is  practically  no  limit 
whatever  to  that  of  the  airship,  as  this  can  be  overcome 
by  merely  increasing  the  size.  It  thus  appears  that  for 
such  journeys  as  crossing  the  Atlantic,  or  crossing  the 
Pacific  from  the  west  coast  of  America  to  Australia  or 
Japan,  the  airship  will  be  peculiarly  suitable.  It  having 

373 


A  HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

been  conceded  that  the  scope  of  the  airship  is  long 
distance  travel,  the  only  type  which  need  be  considered 
for  this  purpose  is  the  rigid.  The  rigid  airship  is  still 
in  an  embryonic  state,  but  sufficient  has  already  been 
accomplished  in  this  country,  and  more  particularly  in 
Germany,  to  show  that  with  increased  capacity  there  is 
no  reason  why,  within  a  few  years'  time,  airships  should 
not  be  built  capable  of  completing  the  circuit  of  the 
globe  and  of  conveying  sufficient  passengers  and 
merchandise  to  render  such  an  undertaking  a  paying 
proposition/ 

The  British  R.38  class,  embodying  the  latest 
improvements  in  airship  design  outside  Germany,  gives 
a  gross  lift  per  airship  of  85  tons  and  a  net  lift  of  about 
45  tons.  The  capacity  of  the  gas  bags  is  about  two  and 
three-quarter  million  cubic  feet,  and,  travelling  at  the 
rate  of  45"  miles  per  hour,  the  cruising  range  of  the 
vessel  is  estimated  at  8*8  days.  Six  engines,  each  of 
350  horse-power,  admit  of  an  extreme  speed  of  70 
miles  per  hour  if  necessary. 

The  last  word  in  German  design  is  exemplified  in 
the  rigids  L.7o  and  L.yi,  together  with  the  commercial 
airship  *  Bodensee.'  Previous  to  the  construction  of 
these,  the  L.65  type  is  noteworthy  as  being  the  first 
Zeppelin  in  which  direct  drive  of  the  propeller  was 
introduced,  together  with  an  improved  and  lighter  type 
of  car.  L.7o,  built  in  1918  and  destroyed  by  the 
British  naval  forces,  had  a  speed  of  about  75  miles  per 
hour;  L.7I  had  a  maximum  speed  of  72  miles  per  hour, 
a  gas  bag  capacity  of  2,420,000  cubic  feet,  and  a  length 
of  743  feet,  while  the  total  lift  was  73  tons.  Progress 
in  design  is  best  shown  by  the  progress  in  useful  load; 
in  the  L-7O  and  L.7I  class,  this  has  been  increased  to 

374 


THE  AIRSHIP   COMMERCIALLY 

58*3    per    cent,    while    in    the   Bodensee   it    was    even 
higher. 

As  was  shown  in  R.34*s  American  flight,  the  main 
problem  in  connection  with  the  commercial  use  of 
dirigibles  is  that  of  mooring  in  the  open.  The  nearest 
to  a  solution  of  this  problem,  so  far,  consists  in  the 
mast  carrying  a  swivelling  cap;  this  has  been  tried 
in  the  British  service  with  a  non-rigid  airship,  which 
was  attached  to  a  mast  in  open  country  in  a  gale  of  52 
miles  an  hour  without  the  slightest  damage  to  the  airship. 
In  its  commercial  form,  the  mast  would  probably  take 
the  form  of  a  tower,  at  the  top  of  which  the  cap  would 
revolve  so  that  the  airship  should  always  face  the  wind, 
the  tower  being  used  for  embarkation  and  disembarkation 
of  passengers  and  the  provision  of  fuel  and  gas.  Such 
a  system  would  render  sheds  unnecessary  except  in 
case  of  repairs,  and  would  enormously  decrease  the 
establishment  charges  of  any  commercial  airship. 

All  this,  however,  is  hypothetical.  Remains  the 
airship  of  to-day,  developed  far  beyond  the  promise  of 
five  years  ago,  capable,  as  has  been  proved  by  its 
achievements  both  in  Britain  and  in  Germany,  of  under- 
taking practically  any  given  voyage  with  success. 


H.A.  375  2B 


VII 


KITE    BALLOONS 

As  far  back  as  the  period  of  the  Napoleonic  wars,  the 
balloon  was  given  a  place  in  warfare,  but  up  to  the 
Franco-Prussian  War  of  1870-71  its  use  was  inter- 
mittent. The  Federal  forces  made  use  of  balloons  to 
a  small  extent  in  the  American  Civil  War;  they  came 
to  great  prominence  in  the  siege  of  Paris,  carrying  out 
upwards  of  three  million  letters  and  sundry  carrier 
pigeons  which  took  back  messages  into  the  besieged 
city.  Meanwhile,  as  captive  balloons,  the  German 
and  other  armies  used  them  for  observation  and  the 
direction  of  artillery  fire.  In  this  work  the  ordinary 
spherical  balloon  was  at  a  grave  disadvantage;  if  a 
gust  of  wind  struck  it,  the  balloon  was  blown  downward 
and  down  wind,  generally  twirling  in  the  air  and 
upsetting  any  calculations  and  estimates  that  might  be 
made  by  the  observers,  while  in  a  wind  of  25  miles  an 
hour  it  could  not  rise  at  all.  The  rotatory  movement 
caused  by  wind  was  stopped  by  an  experimenter  in  the 
Russo-Japanese  war,  who  fixed  to  the  captive  observation 
balloons  a  fin  which  acted  as  a  rudder.  This  did  not 
stop  the  balloon  from  being  blown  downward  and 
away  from  its  mooring  station,  but  this  tendency  was 
overcome  by  a  modification  designed  in  Germany  by 
the  Parseval-Siegsfield  Company,  which  originated 
what  has  since  become  familiar  as  the  '  Sausage  '  or 


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kite  balloon.  This  is  so  arranged  that  the  forward  end 
is  tilted  up  into  the  wind,  and  the  underside  of  the  gas 
bag,  acting  as  a  plane,  gives  the  balloon  a  lifting  tendency 
in  a  wind,  thus  counteracting  the  tendency  of  the  wind 
to  blow  it  downward  and  away  from  its  mooring  station. 
Smaller  bags  are  fitted  at  the  lower  and  rear  end  of  the 
balloon  with  openings  that  face  into  the  wind;  these 
are  thus  kept  inflated,  and  they  serve  the  purpose  of  a 
rudder,  keeping  the  kite  balloon  steady  in  the  air. 

Various  types  of  kite  balloon  have  been  introduced; 
the  original  German  Parseval-Siegsfield  had  a  single 
air  bag  at  the  stern  end,  which  was  modified  to  two, 
three,  or  more  lobes  in  later  varieties,  while  an  American 
experimental  design  attempted  to  do  away  with  the 
attached  lobes  altogether  by  stringing  out  a  series  of 
small  air  bags,  kite  fashion,  in  rear  of  the  main  envelope. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  War,  Germany  alone  had  kite 
balloons,  for  the  authorities  of  the  Allied  armies  con- 
sidered that  the  bulk  of  such  a  vessel  rendered  it  too 
conspicuous  a  mark  to  permit  of  its  being  serviceable. 
The  Belgian  arm  alone  possessed  two  which,  on  being 
put  into  service,  were  found  extremely  useful.  The 
French  followed  by  constructing  kite  balloons  at  Chalais 
Meudon,  and  then,  after  some  months  of  hostilities  and 
with  the  example  of  the  Royal  Naval  Air  Service  to 
encourage  them,  the  British  military  authorities  finally 
took  up  the  construction  and  use  of  kite  balloons  for 
artillery-spotting  and  general  observation  purposes. 
Although  many  were  brought  down  by  gun-fire,  their 
uses  far  outweighed  their  disadvantages,  and  toward  the 
end  of  the  War,  hardly  a  mile  of  front  was  without  its 
'  Sausage/ 

For   naval    work,    kite   balloons   were   carried    in   a 

377 


A  HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

specially  constructed  hold  in  the  forepart  of  certain 
vessels;  when  required  for  use,  the  covering  of  the 
hold  was  removed,  the  kite  balloon  inflated  and  released 
to  the  required  height  by  means  of  winches  as  in  the 
case  of  the  land  work.  The  perfecting  of  the  *  Coastal ' 
and  N.S.  types  of  airship,  together  with  the  extension 
of  wireless  telephony  between  airship  and  cruiser  or 
other  warship,  in  all  probability  will  render  the  use  of 
the  kite  balloon  unnecessary  in  connection  with  naval 
scouting.  But,  during  the  War,  neither  wireless 
telephony  nor  naval  airships  had  developed  sufficiently 
to  render  the  Navy  independent  of  any  means  that 
might  come  to  hand,  and  the  fitting  of  kite  balloons 
in  this  fashion  filled  a  need  of  the  times. 

A  necessary  accessory  of  the  kite  balloon  is  the 
parachute,  which  has  a  long  history.  Da  Vinci  and 
Veranzio  (ante^  page  119)  appear  to  have  been  the  first 
exponents,  the  first  in  the  theory  and  the  latter  in  the 
practice  of  parachuting.  Mongolfier  experimented  at 
Annonay  before  he  constructed  his  first  hot  air-balloon, 
and  in  1783  a  certain  Lenormand  dropped  from  a  tree 
in  a  parachute.  Blanchard  the  balloonist  made  a  spectacle 
of  parachuting,  and  made  it  a  financial  success;  Cocking, 
in  1836,  attempted  to  use  an  inverted  form  of  parachute; 
taken  up  to  a  height  of  3,000  feet,  he  was  cut  adrift, 
when  the  framework  of  the  parachute  collapsed  and 
Cocking  was  killed. 

The  rate  of  fall  is  slow  in  parachuting  to  the  ground. 
Frau  Poitevin,  making  a  descent  from  a  height  of  6,000 
feet,  took  45  minutes  to  reach  the  ground,  and,  when 
she  alighted,  her  husband,  who  had  taken  her  up,  had 
nearly  got  his  balloon  packed  up.  Robertson,  another 
parachutist,  is  said  to  have  descended  from  a  height 

378 


In  mid-air.     A  parachute  descent  from 

at  the  front,  near  Metz,  26th  January,  1918. 

To  face  page  378 


KITE  BALLOONS 

of  10,000  feet  in  35  minutes,  or  at  a  rate  of  nearly  5 
feet  per  second.  During  the  War  Brigadier-General 
Maitland  made  a  parachute  descent  from  a  height  of 
10,000  feet,  the  time  taken  being  about  20  minutes. 

The  parachute  was  developed  considerably  during 
the  War  period,  the  main  requirement,  that  of  certainty 
in  opening,  being  considerably  developed.  Considered 
a  necessary  accessory  for  kite  balloons,  the  parachute 
was  also  partially  adopted  for  use  with  aeroplanes  in  the 
later  War  period,  when  it  was  contended  that  if  a 
machine  were  shot  down  in  flames,  its  occupants  would 
be  given  a  far  better  chance  of  escape  if  they  had 
parachutes.  Various  trials  were  made  to  demonstrate 
the  extreme  efficiency  of  the  parachute  in  modern 
form,  one  of  them  being  a  descent  from  the  upper  ways 
of  the  Tower  Bridge  to  the  waters  of  the  Thames,  in 
which  short  distance  the  *  Guardian  Angel  '  type  of 
parachute  opened  and  cushioned  the  descent  for  its 
user. 

For  dirigibles,  balloons,  and  kite  balloons  the 
parachute  is  an  essential.  It  would  seem  to  be  equally 
essential  in  the  case  of  heavier-than-air  machines,  but 
this  point  is  still  debated.  Certainly  it  affords  the 
occupant  of  a  falling  aeroplane  a  chance,  no  matter  how 
slender,  of  reaching  the  ground  in  safety,  and,  for  that 
reason,  it  would  seem  to  have  a  place  in  aviation  as  well 
as  in  aerostation. 


379 


PART  IV 
ENGINE   DEVELOPMENT 


THE    VERTICAL    TYPE 

THE  balloon  was  but  a  year  old  when  the  brothers 
Robert,  in  1784,  attempted  propulsion  of  an  aerial 
vehicle  by  hand-power,  and  succeeded,  to  a  certain 
extent,  since  they  were  able  to  make  progress  when 
there  was  only  a  slight  wind  to  counteract  their  work. 
But,  as  may  be  easily  understood,  the  manual  power 
provided  gave  but  a  very  slow  speed,  and  in  any  wind 
at  all  the  would-be  airship  became  an  uncontrolled 
balloon. 

Henson  and  Stringfellow,  with  their  light  steam 
engines,  were  first  to  attempt  conquest  of  the  problem 
of  mechanical  propulsion  in  the  air;  their  work  in  this 
direction  is  so  fully  linked  up  with  their  constructed 
models  that  it  has  been  outlined  in  the  section  dealing 
with  the  development  of  the  aeroplane  (ante^  page  57). 
But,  very  shortly  after  these  two  began,  there  came  into 
the  field  a  Monsieur  Henri  Giffard,  who  first  achieved 
success  in  the  propulsion  by  mechanical  means  of 
dirigible  balloons,  for  his  was  the  first  airship  to  fly 
against  the  wind.  He  employed  a  small  steam-engine 
developing  about  3  horse-power  and  weighing  350  Ibs. 
with  boiler,  fitting  the  whole  in  a  car  suspended  from 
the  gas-bag  of  his  dirigible.  The  propeller  which  this 
engine  worked  was  1 1  feet  in  diameter,  and  the  inventor, 
who  made  several  flights,  obtained  a  speed  of  6  miles  an 

383 


A  HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

hour  against  a  slight  wind.  The  power  was  not  sufficient 
to  render  the  invention  practicable,  as  the  dirigible 
could  only  be  used  in  calm  weather,  but  Giffard  was 
sufficiently  encouraged  by  his  results  to  get  out  plans 
for  immense  dirigibles,  which  through  lack  of  funds 
he  was  unable  to  construct.  When,  later,  his  invention 
of  the  steam-injector  gave  him  the  means  he  desired, 
he  became  blind,  and  in  1882  died,  having  built  but 
the  one  famous  dirigible. 

This  appears  to  have  been  the  only  instance  of  a 
steam  engine  being  fitted  to  a  dirigible;  the  inherent 
disadvantage  of  this  form  of  motive  power  is  that  a 
boiler  to  generate  the  steam  must  be  carried,  and  this, 
together  with  the  weight  of  water  and  fuel,  renders  the 
steam  engine  uneconomical  in  relation  to  the  lift  either 
of  plane  or  gas-bag.  Again,  even  if  the  weight  could  be 
brought  down  to  a  reasonable  amount,  the  attention 
required  by  steam  plant  renders  it  undesirable  as  a 
motive  power  for  aircraft  when  compared  with  the 
internal  combustion  engine. 

Maxim,  in  Artificial  and  Natural  Flight^  details  the 
engine  which  he  constructed  for  use  with  his  giant 
experimental  flying  machine,  and  his  description  is 
worthy  of  reproduction  since  it  is  that  of  the  only  steam 
engine  besides  GifFard's,  and  apart  from  those  used  for 
the  propulsion  of  models,  designed  for  driving  an 
aeroplane.  *  In  1889,'  Maxim  says,  *  I  had  my  attention 
drawn  to  some  very  thin,  strong,  and  comparatively 
cheap  tubes  which  were  being  made  in  France,  and  it 
was  only  after  I  had  seen  these  tubes  that  I  seriously 
considered  the  question  of  making  a  flying  machine. 
I  obtained  a  large  quantity  of  them  and  found  that 
they  were  very  light,  that  they  would  stand  enormously 


THE  VERTICAL  TYPE 

high  pressures,  and  generate  a  very  large  quantity  of 
steam.  Upon  going  into  a  mathematical  calculation 
of  the  whole  subject,  I  found  that  it  would  be  possible 
to  make  a  machine  on  the  aeroplane  system,  driven 
by  a  steam  engine,  which  would  be  sufficiently  strong 
to  lift  itself  into  the  air.  I  first  made  drawings  of  a 
steam  engine,  and  a  pair  of  these  engines  was  afterwards 
made.  These  engines  are  constructed,  for  the  most 
part,  of  a  very  high  grade  of  cast  steel,  the  cylinders 
being  only  ^  of  an  inch  thick,  the  crank  shafts  hollow, 
and  every  part  as  strong  and  light  as  possible.  They 
are  compound,  each  having  a  high-pressure  piston 
with  an  area  of  20  square  inches,  a  low-pressure  piston 
of  50.26  square  inches,  and  a  common  stroke  of  i  foot. 
When  first  finished  they  were  found  to  weigh  300  Ibs. 
each;  but  after  putting  on  the  oil  cups,  felting,  painting, 
and  making  some  slight  alterations,  the  weight  was 
brought  up  to  320  Ibs.  each,  or  a  total  of  640  Ibs.  for 
the  two  engines,  which  have  since  developed  362  horse- 
power with  a  steam  pressure  of  320  Ibs.  per  square  inch.' 
The  result  is  remarkable,  being  less  than  2  Ibs. 
weight  per  horse-power,  especially  when  one  considers 
the  state  of  development  to  which  the  steam  engine 
had  attained  at  the  time  these  experiments  were  made. 
The  fining  down  of  the  internal  combustion  engine, 
which  has  done  so  much  to  solve  the  problems  of  power 
in  relation  to  weight  for  use  with  aircraft,  had  not  then 
been  begun,  and  Maxim  had  nothing  to  guide  him,  so 
far  as  work  on  the  part  of  his  predecessors  was  concerned, 
save  the  experimental  engines  of  Stringfellow,  which, 
being  constructed  on  so  small  a  scale  in  comparison 
with  his  own,  afforded  little  guidance.  Concerning  the 
factor  of  power,  he  says:  '  When  first  designing  this 

385 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

engine,  I  did  not  know  how  much  power  I  might  require 
from  it.  I  thought  that  in  some  cases  it  might  be 
necessary  to  allow  the  high-pressure  steam  to  enter  the 
low-pressure  cylinder  direct,  but  as  this  would  involve 
a  considerable  loss,  I  constructed  a  species  of  injector. 
This  injector  may  be  so  adjusted  that  when  the  steam 
in  the  boiler  rises  above  a  certain  predetermined  point, 
say  300  Ibs.,  to  the  square  inch,  it  opens  a  valve  and 
escapes  past  the  high-pressure  cylinder  instead  of 
blowing  off  at  the  safety  valve.  In  escaping  through 
this  valve,  a  fall  of  about  200  Ibs.  pressure  per  square 
inch  is  made  to  do  work  on  the  surrounding  steam 
and  drive  it  forward  in  the  pipe,  producing  a  pressure 
on  the  low-pressure  piston  considerably  higher  than 
the  back-pressure  on  the  high-pressure  piston.  In 
this  way  a  portion  of  the  work  which  would  otherwise 
be  lost  is  utilised,  and  it  is  possible,  with  an  unlimited 
supply  of  steam,  to  cause  the  engines  to  develop  an 
enormous  amount  of  power.' 

With  regard  to  boilers,  Maxim  writes, — 

*  The  first  boiler  which  I  made  was  constructed 
something  on  the  Herreshof  principle,  but  instead  of 
having  one  simple  pipe  in  one  very  long  coil,  I  used  a 
series  of  very  small  and  light  pipes,  connected  in  such 
a  manner  that  there  was  a  rapid  circulation  through  the 
whole — the  tubes  increasing  in  size  and  number  as  the 
steam  was  generated.  I  intended  that  there  should  be 
a  pressure  of  about  100  Ibs.  more  on  the  feed  water  end 
of  the  series  than  on  the  steam  end,  and  I  believed  that 
this  difference  in  pressure  would  be  sufficient  to  ensure 
a  direct  and  positive  circulation  through  every  tube  in 

386 


THE  VERTICAL  TYPE 

the  series.  The  first  boiler  was  exceedingly  light,  but 
the  workmanship,  as  far  as  putting  the  tubes  together 
was  concerned,  was  very  bad,  and  it  was  found  im- 
possible to  so  adjust  the  supply  of  water  as  to  make 
dry  steam  without  overheating  and  destroying  the 
tubes. 

'  Before  making  another  boiler  I  obtained  a  quantity 
of  copper  tubes,  about  8  feet  long,  f  inch  external 
diameter,  and  ^  of  an  inch  thick.  I  subjected  about 
100  of  these  tubes  to  an  internal  pressure  of  i  ton  per 
square  inch  of  cold  kerosene  oil,  and  as  none  of  them 
leaked  I  did  not  test  any  more,  but  commenced  my 
experiments  by  placing  some  of  them  in  a  white-hot 
petroleum  fire.  I  found  that  I  could  evaporate  as  much 
as  26^  Ibs.  of  water  per  square  foot  of  heating  surface 
per  hour,  and  that  with  a  forced  circulation,  although 
the  quantity  of  water  passing  was  very  small  but  positive, 
there  was  no  danger  of  overheating.  I  conducted  many 
experiments  with  a  pressure  of  over  400  Ibs.  per  square 
inch,  but  none  of  the  tubes  failed.  I  then  mounted  a 
single  tube  in  a  white-hot  furnace,  also  with  a  water 
circulation,  and  found  that  it  only  burst  under  steam 
at  a  pressure  of  1,650  Ibs.  per  square  inch.  A  large 
boiler,  having  about  800  square  feet  of  heating  surface, 
including  the  feed-water  heater,  was  then  constructed. 
This  boiler  is  about  4^  feet  wide  at  the  bottom,  8  feet 
long  and  6  feet  high.  It  weighs,  with  the  casing,  the 
dome,  and  the  smoke  stack  and  connections,  a  little  less 
than  1,000  Ibs.  The  water  first  passes  through  a  system 
of  small  tubes — £  inch  in  diameter  and  ^  inch  thick 
— which  were  placed  at  the  top  of  the  boiler  and  im- 
mediately over  the  large  tubes.  .  .  .  This  feed- water 
heater  is  found  to  be  very  effective.  It  utilises  the  heat 

387 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

of  the  products  of  combustion  after  they  have  passed 
through  the  boiler  proper  and  greatly  reduces  their 
temperature,  while  the  feed-water  enters  the  boiler 
at  a  temperature  of  about  250  F.  A  forced  circulation 
is  maintained  in  the  boiler,  the  feed-water  entering 
through  a  spring  valve,  the  spring  valve  being  adjusted 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  pressure  on  the  water  is  always 
30  Ibs.  per  square  inch  in  excess  of  the  boiler  pressure. 
This  fall  of  30  Ibs.  in  pressure  acts  upon  the  surrounding 
hot  water  which  has  already  passed  through  the  tubes, 
and  drives  it  down  through  a  vertical  outside  tube,  thus 
ensuring  a  positive  and  rapid  circulation  through  all 
the  tubes.  This  apparatus  is  found  to  act  extremely 
well.' 

Thus  Maxim,  who  with  this  engine  as  power  for 
his  large  aeroplane  achieved  free  flight  once,  as  a  matter 
of  experiment,  though  for  what  distance  or  time  the 
machine  was  actually  off  the  ground  is  matter  for  debate, 
since  it  only  got  free  by  tearing  up  the  rails  which  were 
to  have  held  it  down  in  the  experiment.  Here,  however, 
was  a  steam  engine  which  was  practicable  for  use  in  the 
air,  obviously,  and  only  the  rapid  success  of  the  internal 
combustion  engine  prevented  the  steam-producing  type 
from  being  developed  toward  perfection. 

The  first  designers  of  internal  combustion  engines, 
knowing  nothing  of  the  petrol  of  these  days,  constructed 
their  examples  with  a  view  to  using  gas  as  fuel.  As  far 
back  as  1872  Herr  Paul  Haenlein  obtained  a  speed  of 
about  10  miles  an  hour  with  a  balloon  propelled  by  an 
internal  combustion  engine,  of  which  the  fuel  was  gas 
obtained  from  the  balloon  itself.  The  engine  in  this 
case  was  of  the  Lenoir  type,  developing  some  6  horse- 
power, and,  obviously,  Haenlein's  flights  were  purely 

388 


THE  VERTICAL  TYPE 

experimental  and  of  short  duration,  since  he  used  the 
gas  that  sustained  him  and  decreased  the  lifting  power 
of  his  balloon  with  every  stroke  of  the  piston  of  his 
engine.  No  further  progress  appears  to  have  been 
made  with  the  gas-consuming  type  of  internal  combustion 
engine  for  work  with  aircraft;  this  type  has  the  disad- 
vantage of  requiring  either  a  gas-producer  or  a  large 
storage  capacity  for  the  gas,  either  of  which  makes  the 
total  weight  of  the  power  plant  much  greater  than  that 
of  a  petrol  engine.  The  latter  type  also  requires  less 
attention  when  working,  and  the  fuel  is  more  convenient 
both  for  carrying  and  in  the  matter  of  carburation. 

The  first  airship  propelled  by  the  present-day  type 
of  internal  combustion  engine  was  constructed  by 
Baumgarten  and  Wolfert  in  1879  at  Leipzig,  the  engine 
being  made  by  Daimler  with  a  view  to  working  on 
benzine — petrol  as  a  fuel  had  not  then  come  to  its  own. 
The  construction  of  this  engine  is  interesting  since  it 
was  one  of  the  first  of  Daimler's  make,  and  it  was  the 
development  brought  about  by  the  experimental  series 
of  which  this  engine  was  one  that  led  to  the  success  of 
the  motor-car  in  very  few  years,  incidentally  leading  to 
that  fining  down  of  the  internal  combustion  engine 
which  has  facilitated  the  development  of  the  aeroplane 
with  such  remarkable  rapidity.  Owing  to  the  faulty 
construction  of  the  airship  no  useful  information  was 
obtained  from  Daimler's  pioneer  installation,  as  the 
vessel  got  out  of  control  immediately  after  it  was  first 
launched  for  flight,  and  was  wrecked.  Subsequent 
attempts  at  mechanically-propelled  flight  by  Wolfert 
ended,  in  1897,  in  the  balloon  being  set  on  fire  by  an 
explosion  of  benzine  vapour,  resulting  in  the  death  of 
both  the  aeronauts. 

389 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

Daimler,  from  1882  onward,  devoted  his  attention 
to  the  perfecting  of  the  small,  high-speed  petrol  engine 
for  motor-car  work,  and  owing  to  his  efforts,  together 
with  those  of  other  pioneer  engine-builders,  the  motor- 
car was  made  a  success.  In  a  few  years  the  weight  of 
this  type  of  engine  was  reduced  from  near  on  a  hundred 
pounds  per  horse-power  to  less  than  a  tenth  of  that 
weight,  but  considerable  further  improvement  had  to 
be  made  before  an  engine  suitable  for  use  with  aircraft 
was  evolved. 

The  increase  in  power  of  the  engines  fitted  to  airships 
has  made  steady  progress  from  the  outset;  Haenlein's 
engine  developed  about  6  horse-power;  the  Santos- 
Dumont  airship  of  1898  was  propelled  by  a  motor  of 
4  horse-power;  in  1902  the  Lebaudy  airship  was  fitted 
with  an  engine  of  40  horse-power,  while,  in  1910,  the 
Lebaudy  brothers  fitted  an  engine  of  nearly  300  horse- 
power to  the  airship  they  were  then  constructing — 
1,400  horse-power  was  common  in  the  airships  of  the 
War  period,  and  the  later  British  rigids  developed  yet 
more. 

Before  passing  on  to  consideration  of  the  petrol- 
driven  type  of  engine,  it  is  necessary  to  accord  brief 
mention  to  the  dirigible  constructed  in  1884  by  Gaston 
and  Albert  Tissandier,  who  at  Crenelle,  France, 
achieved  a  directed  flight  in  a  wind  of  8  miles 
an  hour,  obtaining  their  power  for  the  propeller  from 
1 1  horse-power  Siemens  electric  motor,  which  weighed 
121  Ibs.  and  took  its  current  from  a  bichromate  battery 
weighing  496  Ibs.  A  two-bladed  propeller,  9  feet  in 
diameter,  was  used,  and  the  horse-power  output  was 
estimated  to  have  run  up  to  i£  as  the  dirigible  success- 
fully described  a  semicircle  in  a  wind  of  8  miles  an  hour, 

390 


THE  VERTICAL  TYPE 

subsequently  making  headway  transversely  to  a  wind 
of  7  miles  an  hour.  The  dirigible  with  which  this 
motor  was  used  was  of  the  conventional  pointed-end 
type,  with  a  length  of  92  feet,  diameter  of  30  feet,  and 
capacity  of  37.440  cubic  feet  of  gas.  Commandant 
Renard,  of  the  French  army  balloon  corps,  followed 
up  Tissandier's  attempt  in  the  next  year — 1885 — 
making  a  trip  from  Chalais-Meudon  to  Paris  and 
returning  to  the  point  of  departure  quite  successfully. 
In  this  case  the  motive  power  was  derived  from  an 
electric  plant  of  the  type  used  by  the  Tissandiers, 
weighing  altogether  1,174  Ibs.,  and  developing  9  horse- 
power. A  speed  of  14  miles  an  hour  was  attained  with 
this  dirigible,  which  had  a  length  of  165  feet,  diameter 
of  27  feet,  and  capacity  of  65,836  cubic  feet  of  gas. 

Reverting  to  the  petrol-fed  type  again,  it  is  to  be 
noted  that  Santos-Dumont  was  practically  the  first  to 
develop  the  use  of  the  ordinary  automobile  engine 
for  air  work — his  work  is  of  such  importance 
that  it  has  been  considered  best  to  treat  of  it  as  one 
whole,  and  details  of  the  power  plants  are  included  in 
the  account  of  his  experiments.  Coming  to  the  Lebaudy 
brothers  and  their  work,  their  engine  of  1902  was 
a  40  horse-power  Daimler,  four-cylindered;  it  was 
virtually  a  large  edition  of  the  Daimler  car  engine,  the 
arrangement  of  the  various  details  being  on  the  lines 
usually  adopted  for  the  standard  Daimler  type  of  that 
period.  The  cylinders  were  fully  water-jacketed,  and 
no  special  attempt  toward  securing  lightness  for  air- 
work  appears  to  have  been  made. 

The  fining  down  of  detail  that  brought  weight  to 
such  limits  as  would  fit  the  engine  for  work  with 
heavier-than-air  craft  appears  to  have  waited  for  the 

ii. A.  391  2  c 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

brothers  Wright.  Toward  the  end  of  1903  they  fitted 
to  their  first  practicable  flying  machine  the  engine  which 
made  the  historic  first  aeroplane  flight;  this  engine 
developed  30  horse-power,  and  weighed  only  about 
7  Ibs.  per  horse-power  developed,  its  design  and  work- 
manship being  far  ahead  of  any  previous  design  in  this 
respect,  with  the  exception  of  the  remarkable  engine, 
designed  by  Manly,  installed  in  Langley's  ill-fated 
aeroplane — or  *  aerodrome/  as  he  preferred  to  call  it — 
tried  in  1903. 

The  light  weight  of  the  Wright  brothers'  engine 
did  not  necessitate  a  high  number  of  revolutions  per 
minute  to  get  the  requisite  power;  the  speed  was  only 
1,300  revolutions  per  minute,  which,  with  a  piston 
stroke  of  3.94  inches,  was  quite  moderate.  Four 
cylinders  were  used,  the  cylinder  diameter  being  4.42 
inches;  the  engine  was  of  the  vertical  type,  arranged 
to  drive  two  propellers  at  a  rate  of  about  350  revolutions 
per  minute,  gearing  being  accomplished  by  means  of 
chain  drive  from  crank-shaft  end  to  propeller  spindle. 

The  methods  adopted  by  the  Wrights  for  obtaining 
a  light-weight  engine  were  of  considerable  interest,  in 
view  of  the  fact  that  the  honour  of  first  achieving  flight 
by  means  of  the  driven  plane  belongs  to  them — unless 
Ader  actually  flew  as  he  claimed.  The  cylinders  of 
this  first  Wright  engine  were  separate  castings  of  steel, 
and  only  the  barrels  were  jacketed,  this  being  done  by 
fixing  loose,  thin  aluminium  covers  round  the  outside 
of  each  cylinder.  The  combustion  head  and  valve 
pockets  were  cast  together  with  the  cylinder  barrel,  and 
were  not  water  cooled.  The  inlet  valves  were  of  the 
automatic  type,  arranged  on  the  tops  of  the  cylinders, 
while  the  exhaust  valves  were  also  overhead,  operated 

392 


THE  VERTICAL  TYPE 

by  rockers  and  push-rods.  The  pistons  and  piston 
rings  were  of  the  ordinary  type,  made  of  cast-iron,  and 
the  connecting  rods  were  circular  in  form,  with  a  hole 
drilled  down  the  middle  of  each  to  reduce  the 
weight. 

Necessity  for  increasing  power  and  ever  lighter 
weight  in  relation  to  the  power  produced  has  led  to  the 
evolution  of  a  number  of  different  designs  of  internal 
combustion  engines.  It  was  quickly  realised  that 
increasing  the  number  of  cylinders  on  an  engine  was 
a  better  way  of  getting  more  power  than  that  of  increasing 
the  cylinder  diameter,  as  the  greater  number  of  cylinders 
gives  better  torque — even  turning  effect — as  well  as 
keeping  down  the  weight — this  latter  because  the  bigger 
cylinders  must  be  more  stoutly  constructed  than  the 
small  sizes;  this  fact  has  led  to  the  construction  of  engines 
having  as  many  as  eighteen  cylinders,  arranged  in 
three  parallel  rows  in  order  to  keep  the  length  of  crank- 
shaft within  reasonable  limits.  The  aero  engine  of 
to-day  may,  roughly,  be  divided  into  four  classes: 
these  are  the  V  type,  in  which  two  rows  of  cylinders 
are  set  parallel  at  a  certain  angle  to  each  other;  the 
radial  type,  which  consists  of  cylinders  arranged  radially 
and  remaining  stationary  while  the  crankshaft  revolves; 
the  rotary,  where  the  cylinders  are  disposed  round  a 
common  centre  and  revolve  round  a  stationary  shaft, 
and  the  vertical  type,  of  four  or  six  cylinders — seldom 
more  than  this — arranged  in  one  row.  A  modification 
of  the  V  type  is  the  eighteen-cylindered  engine — 
the  Sunbeam  is  one  of  the  best  examples — in  which 
three  rows  of  cylinders  are  set  parallel  to  each  other, 
working  on  a  common  crankshaft.  The  development 
of  these  four  types  started  with  that  of  the  vertical — 

393 


A  HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

ths  simplest  of  all;  the  V,  radial,  and  rotary  types 
came  after  the  vertical,  in  the  order  given. 

The  evolution  of  the  motor-car  led  to  the  adoption 
of  the  vertical  type  of  internal  combustion  engine  in 
preference  to  any  other,  and  it  followed  naturally  that 
vertical  engines  should  be  first  used  for  aeroplane 
propulsion,  as  by  taking  an  engine  that  had  been 
developed  to  some  extent,  and  adapting  it  to  its  new 
work,  the  problem  of  mechanical  flight  was  rendered 
easier  than  if  a  totally  new  type  had  had  to  be  evolved. 
It  was  quickly  realised — by  the  Wrights,  in  fact — 
that  the  minimum  of  weight  per  horse-power  was  the 
prime  requirement  for  the  successful  development  of 
heavier-than-air  machines,  and  at  the  same  time  it  was 
equally  apparent  that  the  utmost  reliability  had  to  be 
obtained  from  the  engine,  while  a  third  requisite  was 
economy,  in  order  to  reduce  the  weight  of  petrol 
necessary  for  flight. 

Daimler,  working  steadily  toward  the  improvement 
of  the  internal  combustion  engine,  had  made  considerable 
progress  by  the  end  of  last  century.  His  two-cylinder 
engine  of  1897  was  approaching  to  the  present-day 
type,  except  as  regards  the  method  of  ignition;  the 
cylinders  had  3.55  inch  diameter,  with  a  4.75  inch 
piston  stroke,  and  the  engine  was  rated  at  4.5  brake 
horse-power,  though  it  probably  developed  more  than 
this  in  actual  running  at  its  rated  speed  of  800  revolutions 
per  minute.  Power  was  limited  by  the  inlet  and  exhaust 
passages,  which,  compared  with  present-day  practice, 
were  very  small.  The  heavy  castings  of  which  the  engine 
was  made  up  are  accounted  for  by  the  necessity  for 
considering  foundry  practice  of  the  time,  for  in  1897 
castings  were  far  below  the  present-day  standard.  The 

394 


THE  VERTICAL  TYPE 


395 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

crank-case  of  this  two-cylinder  vertical  Daimler  engine 
was  the  only  part  made  of  aluminium,  and  even  with 
this  no  attempt  was  made  to  attain  lightness,  for  a 
circular  flange  was  cast  at  the  bottom  to  form  a  stand 
for  the  engine  during  machining  and  erection.  The 
general  design  can  be  followed  from  the  sectional  views, 
and  these  will  show,  too,  that  ignition  was  by  means 
of  a  hot  tube  on  the  cylinder  head,  which  had  to  be 
heated  with  a  blow-lamp  before  starting  the  engine. 
With  all  its  well  known  and  hated  troubles,  at  that 
time  tube  ignition  had  an  advantage  over  the  magneto, 
and  the  coil  and  accumulator  system,  in  reliability; 
sparking  plugs,  too,  were  not  so  reliable  then  as  they 
are  now.  Daimler  fitted  a  very  simple  type  of  carburettor 
to  this  engine,  consisting  only  of  a  float  with  a  single 
jet  placed  in  the  air  passage.  It  may  be  said  that  this 
twin-cylindered  vertical  was  the  first  of  the  series  from 
which  has  been  evolved  the  Mercedes-Daimler  car  and 
airship  engines,  built  in  sizes  up  to  and  even  beyond 
240  horse-power. 

In  1901  the  development  of  the  petrol  engine  was 
still  so  slight  that  it  did  not  admit  of  the  construction, 
by  any  European  maker,  of  an  engine  weighing  less 
than  12  Ibs.  per  horse-power.  Manly,  working  at  the 
instance  of  Professor  Langley,  produced  a  five-cylindered 
radial  type  engine,  in  which  both  the  design  and  work- 
manship showed  a  remarkable  advance  in  construction. 
At  950  revolutions  per  minute  it  developed  52.4  horse- 
power, weighing  only  2.4  pounds  per  horse-power; 
it  was  a  very  remarkable  achievement  in  engine  design, 
considering  the  power  developed  in  relation  to  the 
total  weight,  and  it  was,  too,  an  interruption  in  the 
development  of  the  vertical  type  which  showed 

396 


THE  VERTICAL  TYPE 

that    there    were   other    equally    great    possibilities    in 
design. 

In  England,  the  first  vertical  aero-engine  of  note  was 
that  designed  by  Green,  the  cylinder  dimensions  being 
4.15  inch  diameter  by  4.75  stroke — a  fairly  complete 
idea  of  this  engine  can  be  obtained  from  the  accompanying 
diagrams.  At  a  speed  of  1,160  revolutions  per  minute 
it  developed  35  brake  horse-power,  and  by  accelerating 
up  to  1,220  revolutions  per  minute  a  maximum  of 
40  brake  horse-power  could  be  obtained — the  first- 
mentioned  was  the  rated  working  speed  of  the  engine 
for  continuous  runs.  A  flywheel,  weighing  23.5  Ibs., 
was  fitted  to  the  engine,  and  this,  together  with  the 
ignition  system,  brought  the  weight  up  to  188  Ibs., 
giving  5.4  Ibs.  per  horse-power.  In  comparison  with 
the  engine  fitted  to  the  Wrights'  aeroplane  a  greater 
power  was  obtained  from  approximately  the  same 
cylinder  volume,  and  an  appreciable  saving  in  weight 
had  also  been  effected.  The  illustration  shows  the 
arrangement  of  the  vertical  valves  at  the  top  of  the 
cylinder  and  the  overhead  cam  shaft,  while  the  position 
of  the  carburettor  and  inlet  pipes  can  be  also  seen. 
The  water  jackets  were  formed  by  thin  copper  casings, 
each  cylinder  being  separate  and  having  its  independent 
jacket  rigidly  fastened  to  the  cylinder  at  the  top  only, 
thus  allowing  for  free  expansion  of  the  casing;  the 
joint  at  the  bottom  end  was  formed  by  sliding  the 
jacket  over  a  rubber  ring.  Each  cylinder  was  bolted 
to  the  crank-case  and  set  out  of  line  with  the  crankshaft, 
so  that  the  crank  has  passed  over  the  upper  dead  centre 
by  the  time  that  the  piston  is  at  the  top  of  its  stroke 
when  receiving  the  full  force  of  fuel  explosion.  The 
advantage  of  this  desaxe  setting  is  that  the  pressure  in 

397 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

the  cylinder  acts  on  the  crank-pin  with  a  more  effective 
leverage  during  that  part  of  the  stroke  when  that  pressure 
is  highest,  and  in  addition  the  side  pressure  of  the  piston 
on  the  cylinder  wall,  due  to  the  thrust  of  the  connecting 
rod,  is  reduced.  Possibly  the  charging  of  the  cylinder 
is  also  more  complete  by  this  arrangement,  owing  to 
the  slower  movement  of  the  piston  at  the  bottom  of  its 
stroke  allowing  time  for  an  increased  charge  of  mixture 
to  enter  the  cylinder. 

A  60  horse-power  engine  was  also  made,  having 
four  vertical  cylinders,  each  with  a  diameter  of  5.5 
inches  and  stroke  of  5.75  inches,  developing  its  rated 
power  at  1,100  revolutions  per  minute.  By  accelerating 
up  to  1,200  revolutions  per  minute  70  brake  horse- 
power could  be  obtained,  and  a  maximum  of  80  brake 
horse-power  was  actually  attained  with  the  type.  The 
flywheel,  fitted  as  with  the  original  35  horse-power 
engine,  weighed  37  Ibs.;  with  this  and  with  the  ignition 
system  the  total  weight  of  the  engine  was  only  250  Ibs., 
or  4.2  Ibs.  per  horse-power  at  the  normal  rating.  In 
this  design,  however,  low  weight  in  relation  to  power 
was  not  the  ruling  factor,  for  Green  gave  more  attention 
to  reliability  and  economy  of  fuel  consumption,  which 
latter  was  approximately  0.6  pint  of  petrol  per  brake 
horse-power  per  hour.  Both  the  oil  for  lubricating  the 
bearings  and  the  water  for  cooling  the  cylinders  were 
circulated  by  pumps,  and  all  parts  of  the  valve  gear, 
etc.,  were  completely  enclosed  for  protection  from  dust. 

A  later  development  of  the  Green  engine  was  a 
six-cylindered  vertical,  cylinder  dimensions  being  5.5  inch 
diameter  by  6  inch  stroke,  developing  120  brake  horse- 
power when  running  at  1,250  revolutions  per  minute. 
The  total  weight  of  the  engine  with  ignition  system 

398 


THE  VERTICAL  TYPE 


to 

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LU 


o 

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O 


399 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

was  440  Ibs.,  or  3.66  Ibs.  per  horse-power.  One  of 
these  engines  was  used  on  the  machine  which,  in  1909, 
won  the  prize  of  £1,000  for  the  first  circular  mile  flight, 
and  it  may  be  noted,  too,  that  S.  F.  Cody,  making  the 
circuit  of  England  in  1911,  used  a  four-cylinder 
Green  engine.  Again,  it  was  a  Green  engine  that  in 
1914  won  the  £5,000  prize  offered  for  the  best  aero 
engine  in  the  Naval  and  Military  aeroplane  engine 
competition. 

Manufacture  of  the  Green  engines,  in  the  period  of 
the  War,  had  standardised  to  the  production  of  three 
types.  Two  of  these  were  six-cylinder  models,  giving 
respectively  100  and  150  brake  horse-power,  and  the 
third  was  a  twelve-cylindered  model  rated  at  275  brake 
horse-power. 

In  1910  J.  S.  Critchley  compiled  a  list  showing  the 
types  of  engine  then  being  manufactured;  twenty-two 
out  of  a  total  of  seventy-six  were  of  the  four-cylindered 
vertical  type,  and  in  addition  to  these  there  were  two 
six-cylindered  verticals.  The  sizes  of  the  four-cylinder 
types  ranged  from  26  up  to  118  brake  horse-power; 
fourteen  of  them  developed  less  than  50  horse-power, 
and  only  two  developed  over  100  horse-power. 

It  became  apparent,  even  in  the  early  stages  of 
heavier-than-air  flying,  that  four-cylinder  engines  did 
not  produce  the  even  torque  that  was  required  for  the 
rotation  of  the  power  shaft,  even  though  a  flywheel 
was  fitted  to  the  engine.  With  this  type  of  engine  the 
breakage  of  air-screws  was  of  frequent  occurrence,  and 
an  engine  having  a  more  regular  rotation  was  sought, 
both  for  this  and  to  avoid  the  excessive  vibration  often 
experienced  with  the  four-cylinder  type.  Another 
point  that  forced  itself  on  engine  builders  was  that  the 

400 


THE  VERTICAL  TYPE 

increased  power  which  was  becoming  necessary  for  the 
propulsion  of  aircraft  made  an  increase  in  the  number  of 
cylinders  essential,  in  order  to  obtain  a  light  engine. 
An  instance  of  the  weight  reduction  obtainable  in  using 
six  cylinders  instead  of  four  is  shown  in  Critchley's  list, 
for  one  of  the  four-cylinder  engines  developed  118.5 
brake  horse-power  and  weighed  1,100  Ibs.,  whereas  a 
six-cylinder  engine  by  the  same  manufacturer  developed 
117.5  brake  horse-power  with  a  weight  of  880  Ibs.,  the 
respective  cylinder  dimensions  being  7.48  diameter 
by  9.06  stroke  for  the  four-cylinder  engine,  and  6.1 
diameter  by  7.28  stroke  for  the  six-cylinder  type. 

A  list  of  aeroplane  engines,  prepared  in  1912  by 
Graham  Clark,  showed  that,  out  of  the  total  number  of 
112  engines  then  being  manufactured,  forty-two  were 
of  the  vertical  type,  and  of  this  number  twenty-four  had 
four-cylinders  while  sixteen  were  six-cylindered.  The 
German  aeroplane  engine  trials  were  held  a  year  later, 
and  sixty-six  engines  entered  the  competition,  fourteen 
of  these  being  made  with  air-cooled  cylinders.  All  of 
the  ten  engines  that  were  chosen  for  the  final  trials  were 
of  the  water-cooled  type,  and  the  first  place  was  won  by 
a  Benz  four-cylinder  vertical  engine  which  developed 
102  brake  horse-power  at  1,288  revolutions  per  minute. 
The  cylinder  dimensions  of  this  engine  were  5.1  inch 
diameter  by  7.1  inch  stroke,  and  the  weight  of  the  engine 
worked  out  at  3.4  Ibs.  per  brake  horse-power.  During 
the  trials  the  full-load  petrol  consumption  was  0.53  pint 
per  horse-power  per  hour,  and  the  amount  of  lubricating 
oil  used  was  0.0385  pint  per  brake  horse-power  per  hour. 
In  general  construction  this  Benz  engine  was  somewhat 
similar  to  the  Green  engine  already  described;  the 
overhead  valves,  fitted  in  the  tops  of  the  cylinders, 

401 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

were  similarly  arranged,  as  was  the  cam-shaft;  two 
springs  were  fitted  to  each  of  the  valves  to  guard  against 
the  possibility  of  the  engine  being  put  out  of  action  by 
breakage  of  one  of  the  springs,  and  ignition  was  obtained 
by  two  high-tension  magnetos  giving  simultaneous 
sparks  in  each  cylinder  by  means  of  two  sparking  plugs 
— this  dual  ignition  reduced  the  possibility  of  ignition 
troubles.  The  cylinder  jackets  were  made  of  welded  sheet 
steel  so  fitted  around  the  cylinder  that  the  head  was  also 
water-cooled,  and  the  jackets  were  corrugated  in  the 
middle  to  admit  of  independent  expansion.  Even  the 
lubrication  system  was  duplicated,  two  sets  of  pumps 
being  used,  one  to  circulate  the  main  supply  of  lubricating 
oil,  and  the  other  to  give  a  continuous  supply  of  fresh 
oil  to  the  bearings,  so  that  if  the  supply  from  one  pump 
failed  the  other  could  still  maintain  effective  lubrication. 
Development  of  the  early  Daimler  type  brought 
about  the  four-cylinder  vertical  Mercedes-Daimler 
engine  of  85  horse-power,  with  cylinders  of  5.5  diameter 
with  5.9  inch  stroke,  the  cylinders  being  cast  in  two 
pairs.  The  overhead  arrangement  of  valves  was  adopted, 
and  in  later  designs  push-rods  were  eliminated,  the 
overhead  cam-shaft  being  adopted  in  their  place.  By 
1914  the  four-cylinder  Mercedes-Daimler  had  been 
partially  displaced  from  favour  by  a  six-cylindered 
model,  made  in  two  sizes;  the  first  of  these  gave  a 
nominal  brake  horse-power  of  80,  having  cylinders  of 
4-1  inches  diameter  by  5.5  inches  stroke;  the  second 
type  developed  100  horse-power  with  cylinders  4-7 
inches  in  diameter  and  5.5  inches  stroke,  both  types 
being  run  at  1,200  revolutions  per  minute.  The 
cylinders  of  both  these  types  were  cast  in  pairs,  and, 
instead  of  the  water  jackets  forming  part  of  the  casting, 

402 


THE  VERTICAL  TYPE 

as  in  the  design  of  the  original  four-cylinder  Mercedes- 
Daimler  engine,  they  were  made  of  steel  welded  to 
flanges  on  the  cylinders.  Steel  pistons,  fitted  with 
cast-iron  rings,  were  used,  and  the  overhead  arrange- 
ment of  valves  and  cam-shaft  was  adopted.  About 
°*55  Pmt  Per  brake  horse-power  per  hour  was  the  usual 
fuel  consumption  necessary  to  full  load  running,  and 
the  engine  was  also  economical  as  regards  the  consump- 
tion of  lubricating  oil,  the  lubricating  system  being 
'  forced  '  for  all  parts,  including  the  cam-shaft.  The 
shape  of  these  engines  was  very  well  suited  for  work 
with  aircraft,  being  narrow  enough  to  admit  of  a  stream- 
line form  being  obtained,  while  all  the  accessories  could 
be  so  mounted  as  to  produce  little  or  no  wind  resistance, 
and  very  little  obstruction  to  the  pilot's  view. 

The  eight-cylinder  Mercedes-Daimler  engine, 
used  for  airship  propulsion  during  the  War,  developed 
240  brake  horse-power  at  1,100  revolutions  per  minute; 
the  cylinder  dimensions  were  6-88  diameter  by  6 .5  stroke 
— one  of  the  instances  in  which  the  short  stroke  in 
relation  to  bore  was  very  noticeable. 

Other  instances  of  successful  vertical  design — 
the  types  already  detailed  are  fully  sufficient  to  give 
particulars  of  the  type  generally — are  the  Panhard, 
Chenu,  Maybach,  N.A.G.,  Argus,  Mulag,  and  the 
well-known  Austro-Daimler,  which  by  1917  was  being 
copied  in  every  combatant  country.  There  are  also 
the  later  Wright  engines,  and  in  America  the  Wisconsin 
six-cylinder  vertical,  weighing  well  under  4  Ibs.  per 
horse-power,  is  evidence  of  the  progress  made  with 
this  first  type  of  aero  engine  to  develop. 


403 


II 

THE    VEE    TYPE 

AN  offshoot  from  the  vertical  type,  doubling  the  power 
of  this  with  only  a  very  slight — if  any — increase  in  the 
length  of  crankshaft,  the  Vee  or  diagonal  type  of  aero 
engine  leaped  to  success  through  the  insistent  demand 
for  greater  power.  Although  the  design  came  after 
that  of  the  vertical  engine,  by  1910,  according  to 
Critchley's  list  of  aero  engines,  there  were  more  Vee 
type  engines  being  made  than  any  other  type,  twenty- 
five  sizes  being  given  in  the  list,  with  an  average  rating 
of  5 7' 4  brake  horse-power. 

The  arrangement  of  the  cylinders  in  Vee  form 
over  the  crankshaft,  enabling  the  pistons  of  each  pair 
of  opposite  cylinders  to  act  upon  the  same  crank  pin, 
permits  of  a  very  short,  compact  engine  being  built, 
and  also  permits  of  reduction  of  the  weight  per  horse- 
power, comparing  this  with  that  of  the  vertical  type  of 
engine,  with  one  row  of  cylinders.  Further,  at  the 
introduction  of  this  type  of  engine  it  was  seen  that 
crankshaft  vibration,  an  evil  of  the  early  vertical  engines, 
was  practically  eliminated,  as  was  the  want  of  longi- 
tudinal stiffness  that  characterised  the  higher-powered 
vertical  engines. 

Of  the  Vee  type  engines  shown  in  Critchley's  list 
in  1910,  nineteen  different  sizes  were  constructed  with 
eight  cylinders,  and  with  horse-powers  ranging  from 

404 


THE  VEE  TYPE 

thirty  to  just  over  the  hundred;  the  lightest  of  these 
weighed  2.9  Ibs.  per  horse-power — a  considerable 
advance  in  design  on  the  average  vertical  engine,  in 
this  respect  of  weight  per  horse-power.  There  were 
also  two  sixteen-cylinder  engines  of  Vee  design,  the 
larger  of  which  developed  134  horse-power  with  a 
weight  of  only  2  Ibs.  per  brake  horse-power.  Subse- 
quent developments  have  indicated  that  this  type,  with 
the  further  development  from  it  of  the  double- Vee,  or 
engine  with  three  rows  of  cylinders,  is  likely  to  become 
the  standard  design  of  aero  engine  where  high  powers 
are  required.  The  construction  permits  of  placing 
every  part  so  that  it  is  easy  of  access,  and  the  form  of  the 
engine  implies  very  little  head  resistance,  while  it  can 
be  placed  on  the  machine — supposing  that  machine 
to  be  of  the  single-engine  type — in  such  a  way  that  the 
view  of  the  pilot  is  very  little  obstructed  while  in  flight. 

An  even  torque,  or  great  uniformity  of  rotation, 
is  transmitted  to  the  air-screw  by  these  engines,  while 
the  design  also  permits  of  such  good  balance  of  the 
engine  itself  that  vibration  is  practically  eliminated. 
The  angle  between  the  two  rows  of  cylinders  is  varied 
according  to  the  number  of  cylinders,  in  order  to  give 
working  impulses  at  equal  angles  of  rotation  and  thus 
provide  even  torque;  this  angle  is  determined  by  dividing 
the  number  of  degrees  in  a  circle  by  the  number  of 
cylinders  in  either  row  of  the  engine.  In  an  eight- 
cylindered  Vee  type  engine,  the  angle  between  the 
cylinders  is  90  degrees;  if  it  is  a  twelve-cylindered 
engine,  the  angle  drops  to  60  degrees. 

One  of  the  earliest  of  the  British-built  Vee  type 
engines  was  an  eight-cylinder  50  horse-power  by  the 
Wolseley  Company,  constructed  in  1908  with  a  cylinder 

405 


A   HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

bore  of  3-75  inches  and  stroke  of  5  inches,  running  at 
a  normal  speed  of  1,350  revolutions  per  minute.  With 
this  engine,  a  gearing  was  introduced  to  enable  the 
propeller  to  run  at  a  lower  speed  than  that  of  the  engine, 
the  slight  loss  of  efficiency  caused  by  the  friction  of  the 
gearing  being  compensated  by  the  slower  speed  of 
the  air-screw,  which  had  higher  efficiency  than  would 
have  been  the  case  if  it  had  been  run  at  the  engine  speed. 
The  ratio  of  the  gearing — that  is,  the  speed  of  the  air- 
screw relatively  to  that  of  the  engine,  could  be  chosen 
so  as  to  suit  exactly  the  requirements  of  the  air-screw, 
and  the  gearing  itself,  on  this  engine,  was  accomplished 
on  the  half-speed  shaft  actuating  the  valves. 

Very  soon  after  this  first  design  had  been  tried  out, 
a  second  Vee  type  engine  was  produced  which,  at  1,200 
revolutions  per  minute,  developed  60  horse-power; 
the  size  of  this  engine  was  practically  identical  with 
that  of  its  forerunner,  the  only  exception  being  an 
increase  of  half  an  inch  in  the  cylinder  stroke — a  very 
long  stroke  of  piston  in  relation  to  the  bore  of  the 
cylinder.  In  the  first  of  these  two  engines,  which  was 
designed  for  airship  propulsion,  the  weight  had  been 
about  8  Ibs.  per  brake  horse-power,  no  special  attempt 
appearing  to  have  been  made  to  fine  down  for  extreme 
lightness;  in  this  60  horse-power  design,  the  weight  was 
reduced  to  6-1  Ibs.  per  horse-power,  counting  the  latter 
as  normally  rated;  the  engine  actually  gave  a  maximum 
of  75  brake  horse-power,  reducing  the  ratio  of  weight 
to  power  very  considerably  below  the  figure  given. 

The  accompanying  diagram  illustrates  a  later 
Wolseley  model,  end  elevation,  the  eight-cylindered 
126  horse-power  Vee  type  aero  engine  of  the  early  war 
period.  With  this  engine,  each  crank  pin  has  two 

406 


Sikh,  12-eylinder    magneto,  end  view. 


Sikh,   12-cylinder,  side  view. 


To  face  page  407 


THE  VEE  TYPE 

connecting  rods  bearing  on  it,  these  being  placed  side 
by  side  and  connected  to  the  pistons  of  opposite  cylinders, 
and  the  two  cylinders  of  the  pair  are  staggered  by  an 
amount  equal  to  the  width  of  the  connecting  rod- 
bearing,  to  afford  accommodation  for  the  rods.  The 
crankshaft  was  a  nickel  chrome  steel  forging,  machined 
hollow,  with  four  crank  pins  set  at  180  degrees  to  each 
other,  and  carried  in  three  bearings  lined  with  anti- 
friction metal.  The  connecting  rods  were  made  of 
tubular  nickel  chrome  steel,  and  the  pistons  of  drawn 
steel,  each  being  fitted  with  four  piston  rings.  Of 
these  the  two  rings  nearest  to  the  piston  head  were  of 
the  ordinary  cast-iron  type,  while  the  others  were  of 
phosphor  bronze,  so  arranged  as  to  take  the  side  thrust 
of  the  piston.  The  cylinders  were  of  steel,  arranged 
in  two  groups  or  rows  of  four,  the  angular  distance 
between  them  being  90  degrees.  In  the  space  above 
the  crankshaft,  between  the  cylinder  rows,  was  placed 
the  valve-operating  mechanism,  together  with  the 
carburettor  and  ignition  system,  thus  rendering  this 
a  very  compact  and  accessible  engine.  The  combustion 
heads  of  the  cylinders  were  made  of  cast-iron,  screwed 
into  the  steel  cylinder  barrels;  the  water-jacket  was  of 
spun  aluminium,  with  one  end  fitting  over  the  combustion 
head  and  the  other  free  to  slide  on  the  cylinder;  the 
water-joint  at  the  lower  end  was  made  tight  by  a 
Dermatine  ring  carried  between  small  flanges  formed  on 
the  cylinder  barrel.  Overhead  valves  were  adopted, 
and  in  order  to  make  these  as  large  as  possible  the 
combustion  chamber  was  made  slightly  larger  in  diameter 
than  the  cylinder,  and  the  valves  set  at  an  angle.  Dual 
ignition  was  fitted  in  each  cylinder,  coil  and  accumulator 
being  used  for  starting  and  as  a  reserve  in  case  of  failure 
1 1. A.  407  2  D 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

of  the  high-tension  magneto  system  fitted  for  normal 
running.  There  was  a  double  set  of  lubricating  pumps, 
ensuring  continuity  of  the  oil  supply  to  all  the  bearings 
of  the  engine. 

The   feature   most   noteworthy  in   connection   with 
the  running  of  this  type  of  engine  was  its  flexibility; 


End  View  of  Wolseley  120  horse-power  Vee-type  Engine. 

the  normal  output  of  power  was  obtained  with  1,150 
revolutions  per  minute  of  the  crankshaft,  but,  by 
accelerating  up  to  1,400  revolutions,  a  maximum  of 
147  brake  horse-power  could  be  obtained.  The  weight 
was  about  5  Ibs.  per  horse-power,  the  cylinder  dimensions 
being  5  inches  bore  by  7  inches  stroke.  Economy  in 
running  was  obtained,  the  fuel  consumption  being 
0-58  pint  per  brake  horse-power  per  hour  at  full  load, 
with  an  expenditure  of  about  0-075  Pm*  °f  lubricating 
oil  per  brake  horse-power  per  hour. 

408 


THE  VEE  TYPE 

Another  Wolseley  Vee  type  that  was  standardised 
was  a  90  horse-power  eight-cylinder  engine  running 
at  i,  8  oo  revolutions  per  minute,  with  a  reducing  gear 
introduced  by  fitting  the  air  screw  on  the  half-speed 
shaft.  First  made  semi-cooled — the  exhaust  valve  was 
left  air-cooled,  and  then  entirely  water-jacketed — this 
engine  demonstrated  the  advantage  of  full  water  cooling, 
for  under  the  latter  condition  the  same  power  was 
developed  with  cylinders  a  quarter  of  an  inch  less  in 
diameter  than  in  the  semi-cooled  pattern;  at  the  same 
time  the  weight  was  brought  down  to  4^  Ibs.  per  horse- 
power. 

A  different  but  equally  efficient  type  of  Vee  design 
was  the  Dorman  engine,  of  which  an  end  elevation  is 
shown;  this  developed  80  brake  horse-power  at  a  speed 
of  1,300  revolutions  per  minute,  with  a  cylinder  bore 
of  5  inches;  each  cylinder  was  made  in  cast-iron  in  one 
piece  with  the  combustion  chamber,  the  barrel  only 
being  water-jacketed.  Auxiliary  exhaust  ports  were 
adopted,  the  holes  through  the  cylinder  wall  being 
uncovered  by  the  piston  at  the  bottom  of  its  stroke — 
the  piston,  4.75  inches  in  length,  was  longer  than  its 
stroke,  so  that  these  ports  were  covered  when  it  was  at 
the  top  of  the  cylinder.  The  exhaust  discharged 
through  the  ports  into  a  belt  surrounding  the  cylinder, 
the  belts  on  the  cylinders  being  connected  so  that  the 
exhaust  gases  were  taken  through  a  single  pipe.  The 
air  was  drawn  through  the  crank  case,  before  reaching 
the  carburettor,  this  having  the  effect  of  cooling  the 
oil  in  the  crank  case  as  well  as  warming  the  air  and  thus 
assisting  in  vaporising  the  petrol  for  each  charge  of  the 
cylinders.  The  inlet  and  exhaust  valves  were  of  the 
overhead  type,  as  may  be  gathered  from  the  diagram, 

409 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

and  in  spite  of  cast-iron  cylinders  being  employed  a 
light  design  was  obtained,  the  total  weight  with  radiator, 
piping,  and  water  being  only  5 .5  Ibs.  per  horse-power. 

Here  was  the  antithesis  of  the  Wolseley  type  in  the 
matter  of  bore  in  relation  to  stroke;  from  about  1907 
up  to  the  beginning  of  the  war,  and  even  later,  there 
was  controversy  as  to  which  type — that  in  which  the 
bore  exceeded  the  stroke,  or  vice  versa — gave  greater 


Dorman  80  horse-power  Vee-type  Engine. 

efficiency.  The  short-stroke  enthusiasts  pointed  to  the 
high  piston  speed  of  the  long-stroke  type,  while  those 
who  favoured  the  latter  design  contended  that  full  power 
could  not  be  obtained  from  each  explosion  in  the  short - 
stroke  type  of  cylinder.  It  is  now  generally  conceded 
that  the  long-stroke  engine  yields  higher  efficiency,  and 
in  addition  to  this,  so  far  as  car  engines  are  concerned, 
the  method  of  rating  horse-power  in  relation  to  bore 

410 


THE  VEE  TYPE 

without  taking  stroke  into  account  has  given  the  long- 
stroke  engine  an  advantage,  actual  horse-power  with 
a  long  stroke  engine  being  in  excess  of  the  nominal  rating. 
This  may  have  had  some  influence  on  aero  engine  design, 
but,  however  this  may  have  been,  the  long-stroke  engine 
has  gradually  come  to  favour,  and  its  rival  has  taken 
second  place. 

For  some  time  pride  of  place  among  British  Vee 
type  engines  was  held  by  the  Sunbeam  Company, 
which,  owing  to  the  genius  of  Louis  Coatalen,  together 
with  the  very  high  standard  of  construction  maintained 
by  the  firm,  achieved  records  and  fame  in  the  middle  and 
later  periods  of  the  war.  Their  225  horse-power  twelve- 
cylinder  engine  ran  at  a  normal  speed  of  2,000  revolutions 
per  minute ;  the  air  screw  was  driven  through  gearing  at 
half  this  speed,  its  shaft  being  separate  from  the  timing 
gear  and  carried  in  ball-bearings  on  the  nose-piece  of 
the  engine.  The  cylinders  were  of  cast-iron,  entirely 
water-cooled;  a  thin  casing  formed  the  water-jacket, 
and  a  very  light  design  was  obtained,  the  weight  being 
only  3.2  Ibs.  per  horse-power.  The  first  engine  of 
Sunbeam  design  had  eight  cylinders  and  developed 
150  horse-power  at  2,000  revolutions  per  minute;  the 
final  type  of  Vee  design  produced  during  the  war  was 
twelve-cylindered,  and  yielded  310  horse-power  with 
cylinders  4 .3  inches  bore  by  6 -4  inches  stroke.  Evidence 
in  favour  of  the  long-stroke  engine  is  afforded  in  this 
type  as  regards  economy  of  working;  under  full  load, 
working  at  2,000  revolutions  per  minute,  the  consumption 
was  0.55  pints  of  fuel  per  brake  horse-power  per  hour, 
which  seems  to  indicate  that  the  long  stroke  permitted  of 
full  use  being  made  of  the  power  resulting  from  each 
explosion,  in  spite  of  the  high  rate  of  speed  of  the  piston. 

4U 


A  HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

Developing  from  the  Vee  type,  the  eighteen-cylinder 
475  Drake  horse-power  engine,  designed  during  the  war, 
represented  for  a  time  the  limit  of  power  obtainable 
from  a  single  plant.  It  was  water-cooled  throughout, 
and  the  ignition  to  each  cylinder  was  duplicated;  this 
engine  proved  fully  efficient,  and  economical  in  fuel 
consumption.  It  was  largely  used  for  seaplane  work, 
where  reliability  was  fully  as  necessary  as  high  power. 

The  abnormal  needs  of  the  war  period  brought 
many  British  firms  into  the  ranks  of  Vee-type  engine- 
builders,  and,  apart  from  those  mentioned,  the  most 
notable  types  produced  are  the  Rolls-Royce  and  the 
Napier.  The  first  mentioned  of  these  firms,  previous 
to  1914,  had  concentrated  entirely  on  car  engines,  and 
their  very  high  standard  of  production  in  this  department 
of  internal  combustion  engine  work  led,  once  they  took 
up  the  making  of  aero  engines,  to  extreme  efficiency 
both  of  design  and  workmanship.  The  first  experimental 
aero  engine,  of  what  became  known  as  the  '  Eagle  * 
type,  was  of  Vee  design — it  was  completed  in  March  of 
1915 — and  was  so  successful  that  it  was  standardised 
for  quantity  production.  How  far  the  original  was  from 
the  perfection  subsequently  ascertained  is  shown  by 
the  steady  increase  in  developed  horse-power  of  the 
type;  originally  designed  to  develop  200  horse-power, 
it  was  developed  and  improved  before  its  first  practical 
trial  in  October  of  1915,  when  it  developed  25^5  horse- 
power on  a  brake  test.  Research  and  experiment  pro- 
duced still  further  improvements,  for,  without  any 
enlargement  of  the  dimensions,  or  radical  alteration  in 
design,  the  power  of  the  engine  was  brought  up  to  266 
horse-power  by  March  of  1916,  the  rate  of  revolutions 
of  i, 800  per  minute  being  maintained  throughout, 

412 


THE  VEE  TYPE 

July,  1916,  gave  284  horse-power;  by  the  end  of  the 
year  this  had  been  increased  to  322  horse-power;  by 
September  of  1917  the  increase  was  to  350  horse-power, 
and  by  February  of  1918  the  '  Eagle  '  type  of  engine 
was  rated  at  360  horse-power,  at  which  standard  it 
stayed.  But  there  is  no  more  remarkable  development 
in  engine  design  than  this,  a  75  per  cent  increase  of 
power  in  the  same  engine  in  a  period  of  less  than  three 
years. 

To  meet  the  demand  for  a  smaller  type  of  engine 
for  use  on  training  machines,  the  Rolls-Royce  firm 
produced  the  '  Hawk  '  Vee-type  engine  of  100  horse- 
power, and,  intermediately  between  this  and  the  *  Eagle,' 
the  *  Falcon  '  engine  came  to  being  with  an  original  rated 
horse-power  of  2  05  at  i ,  8  oo  revolutions  per  minute,  in  April 
of  1916.  Here  was  another  case  of  growth  of  power 
in  the  same  engine  through  research,  almost  similar  to 
that  of  the  *  Eagle '  type,  for  by  July  of  1 9 1 8  the  '  Falcon ' 
was  developing  285  horse-power  with  no  radical  alteration 
of  design.  Finally,  in  response  to  the  constant  demand 
for  increase  of  power  in  a  single  plant,  the  Rolls-Royce 
company  designed  and  produced  the  *  Condor  '  type 
of  engine,  which  yielded  600  horse-power  on  its  first 
test  in  August  of  1918.  The  cessation  of  hostilities 
and  consequent  falling  off  in  the  demand  for  extremely 
high-powered  plants  prevented  the  *  Condor '  being 
developed  to  its  limit,  as  had  been  the  *  Falcon  '  and 
1  Eagle  '  types. 

The  *  Eagle  '  engine  was  fitted  to  the  two  Handley- 
Page  aeroplanes  which  made  flights  from  England  to 
India — it  was  virtually  standard  on  the  Handley-Page 
bombers  of  the  later  War  period,  though  to  a  certain 
extent  the  American  '  Liberty  '  engine  was  also  used. 

4*3 


A  HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

Its  chief  record,  however,  is  that  of  being  the  type  fitted 
to  the  Vickers-Vimy  aeroplane  which  made  the  first 
Atlantic  flight,  covering  the  distance  of  1,880  miles  at 
a  speed  averaging  117  miles  an  hour. 

The  Napier  Company  specialised  on  one  type  of 
engine  from  the  outset,  a  power  plant  which  became 
known  as  the  '  Lion  '  engine,  giving  450  horse-power 
with  twelve  cylinders  arranged  in  three  rows  of  four 
each.  Considering  the  engine  as  *  dry/  or  without  fuel 
and  accessories,  an  abnormally  light  weight  per  horse- 
power— only  1-89  Ibs. — was  attained  when  running  at 
the  normal  rate  of  revolution.  The  cylinders  and 
water-jackets  are  of  steel,  and  there  is  fitted  a  detachable 
aluminium  cylinder  head  containing  inlet  and  exhaust 
valves  and  valve  actuating  mechanism;  pistons  are  of 
aluminium  alloy,  and  there  are  two  inlet  and  two  exhaust 
valves  to  each  cylinder,  the  whole  of  the  valve  mechanism 
being  enclosed  in  an  oil-tight  aluminium  case.  Con- 
necting rods  and  crankshaft  are  of  steel,  the  latter  being 
machined  from  a  solid  steel  forging  and  carried  in  five 
roller  bearings  and  one  plain  bearing  at  the  forward 
end.  The  front  end  of  the  crank-case  encloses  reduction 
gear  for  the  propeller  shaft,  together  with  the  shaft  and 
bearings.  There  are  two  suction  and  one  pressure  type 
oil  pumps  driven  through  gears  at  half-engine  speed, 
and  two  12  spark  magnetos,  giving  2  sparks  in  each 
cylinder. 

The  cylinders  are  set  with  the  central  row  vertical, 
and  the  two  side  rows  at  angles  of  60  degrees  each; 
cylinder  bore  is  5^  inches,  and  stroke  5^  inches;  the 
normal  rate  of  revolution  is  1,350  per  minute,  and  the 
reducing  gear  gives  one  revolution  of  the  propeller  shaft 
to  I' 52  revolutions  of  crankshaft.  Fuel  consumption 


Napier  '  Lion.' 


Napier  '  Lion/ 


To  face  page  414 


THE  VEE  TYPE 

is  0-48  Ibs.  of  fuel  per  brake  horse-power  hour  at  full 
load,  and  oil  consumption  is  0*020  Ibs.  per  brake  horse- 
power hour.  The  dry  weight  of  the  engine,  complete 
with  propeller  boss,  carburettors,  and  induction  pipes, 
is  850  Ibs.,  and  the  gross  weight  in  running  order,  with 
fuel  and  oil  for  six  hours  working,  is  2,671  Ibs.,  exclusive 
of  cooling  water. 

To  this  engine  belongs  an  altitude  record  of  30-500 
feet,  made  at  Martlesham,  near  Ipswich,  on  January 
2nd,  1919,  by  Captain  Lang,  R.A.F.,  the  climb  being 
accomplished  in  66  minutes  15  seconds.  Previous 
to  this,  the  altitude  record  was  held  by  an  Italian  pilot, 
who  made  25,800  feet  in  an  hour  and  57  minutes  in 
1916.  Lang's  climb  was  stopped  through  the  pressure 
of  air,  at  the  altitude  he  reached,  being  insufficient  for 
driving  the  small  propellers  on  the  machine  which 
worked  the  petrol  and  oil  pumps,  or  he  might  have  made 
the  height  said  to  have  been  attained  by  Major  Schroeder 
on  February  27th,  1920,  at  Dayton,  Ohio.  Schroeder 
is  said  to  have  reached  an  altitude  of  36,020  feet  on  a 
Napier  biplane,  and,  owing  to  failure  of  the  oxygen 
supply,  to  have  lost  consciousness,  fallen  five  miles, 
righted  his  machine  when  2,000  feet  in  the  air,  and 
alighted  successfully.  Major  Schroeder  is  an  American. 

Turning  back  a  little,  and  considering  other  than 
British  design  of  Vee  and  double- Vee  or  '  Broad  arrow  ' 
type  of  engine,  the  Renault  firm  from  the  earliest  days 
devoted  considerable  attention  to  the  development  of 
this  type,  their  air-cooled  engines  having  been  notable 
examples  from  the  earliest  days  of  heavier-than-air 
machines.  In  1910  they  were  making  three  sizes  of 
eight-cylindered  Vee-type  engines,  and  by  1915  they 
had  increased  to  the  manufacture  of  five  sizes,  ranging 

*1J 


A  HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

from  25  to  100  brake  horse-power,  the  largest  of  the 
five  sizes  having  twelve  cylinders  but  still  retaining  the 
air-cooled  principle.  The  De  Dion  firm,  also,  made 
Vee-type  engines  in  1914,  being  represented  by  an  80 
horse-power  eight-cylindered  engine,  air-cooled,  and 
a  1 50  horse-power,  also  of  eight  cylinders,  water-cooled, 
running  at  a  normal  rate  of  1,600  revolutions  per  minute. 
Another  notable  example  of  French  construction  was 
the  Panhard  and  Levassor  100  horse-power  eight- 
cylinder  Vee  engine,  developing  its  rated  power  at  1,500 
revolutions  per  minute,  and  having  the — for  that  time 
— low  weight  of  4-4  Ibs.  per  horse-power. 

American  Vee  design  has  followed  the  British  fairly 
closely;  the  Curtiss  Company  produced  originally  a 
75  horse-power  eight-cylinder  Vee  type  running  at 
1,200  revolutions  per  minute,  supplementing  this  with 
a  170  horse-power  engine  running  at  1,600  revolutions 
per  minute,  and  later  with  a  twelve-cylinder  model 
Vee  type,  developing  300  horse-power  at  1,500  revolu- 
tions per  minute,  with  cylinder  bore  of  5  inches  and 
stroke  of  7  inches.  An  exceptional  type  of  American 
design  was  the  Kemp  Vee  engine  of  80  horse-power, 
in  which  the  cylinders  were  cooled  by  a  current  of  air 
obtained  from  a  fan  at  the  forward  end  of  the  engine. 
With  cylinders  of  4*25  inches  bore  and  4*75  inches 
stroke,  the  rater  power  was  developed  at  i,  1 50  revolutions 
per  minute,  and  with  the  engine  complete  the  weight 
was  only  4-75  Ibs.  per  horse  power. 


Ill 


THE    RADIAL    TYPE 

THE  very  first  successful  design  of  internal  combustion 
aero  engine  made  was  that  of  Charles  Manly,  who  built  a 
five-cylinder  radial  engine  in  1901  for  use  with  Langley's 
*  aerodrome,'  as  the  latter  inventor  decided  to  call  what 
has  since  become  known  as  the  aeroplane.  Manly 
made  a  number  of  experiments,  and  finally  decided  on 
radial  design,  in  which  the  cylinders  are  so  rayed  round 
a  central  crank-pin  that  the  pistons  act  successively  upon 
it;  by  this  arrangement  a  very  short  and  compact 
engine  is  obtained,  with  a  minimum  of  weight,  and  a 
regular  crankshaft  rotation  and  perfect  balance  of  inertia 
forces. 

When  Manly  designed  his  radial  engine,  high- 
speed internal  combustion  engines  were  in  their  infancy, 
and  the  difficulties  in  construction  can  be  partly  realised 
when  the  lack  of  manufacturing  methods  for  this  high- 
class  engine  work,  and  the  lack  of  experimental  data 
on  the  various  materials,  are  taken  into  account.  During 
its  tests,  Manly 's  engine  developed  52*4  brake  horse- 
power at  a  speed  of  950  revolutions  per  minute,  with 
the  remarkably  low  weight  of  only  2-4  Ibs.  per  horse- 
power; this  latter  was  increased  to  3-6  Ibs.  when  the 
engine  was  completed  by  the  addition  of  ignition  system, 
radiator,  petrol  tank,  and  all  accessories,  together  with 
the  cooling  water  for  the  cylinders, 

417 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

In  Manly's  engine  the  cylinders  were  of  steel, 
machined  outside  and  inside  to  T5^  of  an  inch  thickness; 
on  the  side  of  the  cylinder,  at  the  top  end,  the  valve 
chamber  was  brazed,  being  machined  from  a  solid 


Cross  Section,  Manly's  5  Cylinder  Radial  Engine. 

forging.  The  casing  which  formed  the  water-jacket 
was  of  sheet  steel,  -^  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  and  this 
also  was  brazed  on  the  cylinder  and  to  the  valve  chamber. 
Automatic  inlet  valves  were  fitted,  and  the  exhaust 
valves  were  operated  by  a  cam  which  had  two  points, 
1 80  degrees  apart;  .  the  cam  was  rotated  in  the  opposite 
direction  to  the  engine  at  one-quarter  engine  speed, 


THE   RADIAL  TYPE 

Ignition  was  obtained  by  using  a  one-spark  coil  and 
vibrator  for  all  cylinders,  with  a  distributor  to  select 
the  right  cylinder  for  each  spark — this  was  before  the 
days  of  the  high-tension  magneto  and  the  almost  perfect 
ignition  systems  that  makers  now  employ.  The  scheme  of 
ignition  for  this  engine  was  originated  by  Manly  himself, 
and  he  also  designed  the  sparking  plugs  fitted  in  the 
tops  of  the  cylinders.  Through  fear  of  trouble  resulting 
if  the  steel  pistons  worked  on  the  steel  cylinders,  cast- 
iron  liners  were  introduced  in  the  latter,  ^  of  an  inch 
thick. 

The  connecting  rods  of  this  engine  were  of  virtually 
the  same  type  as  is  employed  on  nearly  all  modern 
radial  engines.  The  rod  for  one  cylinder  had  a  bearing 
along  the  whole  of  the  crank  pin,  and  its  end  enclosed 
the  pin;  the  other  four  rods  had  bearings  upon  the  end 
of  the  first  rod,  and  did  not  touch  the  crank  pin.  The 
accompanying  diagram  shows  this  construction,  together 
with  the  means  employed  for  securing  the  ends  of  the 
four  rods — the  collars  were  placed  in  position  after  the 
rods  had  been  put  on.  The  bearings  of  these  rods  did 
not  receive  any  of  the  rubbing  effect  due  to  the  rotation 
of  the  crank  pin,  the  rubbing  on  them  being  only  that 
of  the  small  angular  displacement  of  the  rods  during 
each  revolution ;  thus  there  was  no  difficulty  experienced 
with  the  lubrication. 

Another  early  example  of  the  radial  type  of  engine 
was  the  French  Anzani,  of  which  type  one  was  fitted 
to  the  machine  with  which  Bleriot  first  crossed  the 
English  Channel — this  was  of  25  horse-power.  The 
earliest  Anzani  engines  were  of  the  three-cylinder  fan 
type,  one  cylinder  being  vertical,  and  the  other  two  placed 
at  an  angle  of  72  degrees  on  each  side,  as  the  possibility 

419 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

of  over-lubrication  of  the  bottom  cylinders  was  feared 
if  a  regular  radial  construction  were  adopted.  In  order 
to  overcome  the  unequal  balance  of  this  type,  balance 
weights  were  fitted  insi4e  the  crank  case. 

The  final  development  of  this  three-cylinder  radial 
was  the  *  Y  '  type  of  engine,  in  which  the  cylinders  were 
regularly  disposed  at  120  degrees  apart;  the  bore  was 
4-1,  stroke  4-7  inches,  and  the  power  developed  was 
30  brake  horse-power  at  1,300  revolutions  per  minute. 

Critchley's  list  of  aero  engines  being  constructed 
in  1910  shows  twelve  of  the  radial  type,  with  powers 
of  between  14  and  100  horse-power,  and  with  from 
three  to  ten  cylinders — this  last  is  probably  the  greatest 
number  of  cylinders  that  can  be  successfully  arranged 
in  circular  form.  Of  the  twelve  types  of  1910,  only 
two  were  water-cooled,  and  it  is  to  be  noted  that  these 
two  ran  at  the  slowest  speeds  and  had  the  lowest  weight 
per  horse-power  of  any. 

The  Anzani  radial  was  considerably  developed, 
special  attention  being  paid  to  this  type  by  its  makers, 
and  by  1914  the  Anzani  list  comprised  seven  different 
sizes  of  air-cooled  radials.  Of  these  the  largest  had 
twenty  cylinders,  developing  200  brake  horse-power — 
it  was  virtually  a  double  radial — and  the  smallest  was  the 
original  30  horse-power  three-cylinder  design.  A  six- 
cylinder  model  was  formed  by  a  combination  of  two 
groups  of  three  cylinders  each,  acting  upon  a  double- 
throw  crankshaft;  the  two  crank  pins  were  set  at  180 
degrees  to  each  other,  and  the  cylinder  groups  were 
staggered  by  an  amount  equal  to  the  distance  between 
the  centres  of  the  crank  pins.  Ten-cylinder  radial 
engines  are  made  with  two  groups  of  five  cylinders 
acting  upon  two  crank  pins  set  at  180  degrees  to  each 

420 


THE   RADIAL  TYPE 

other;  the  largest  Anzani  *  ten  '  developed  125  horse- 
power at  1,200  revolutions  per  minute,  the  ten  cylinders 
being  each  4 .5  inches  in  bore  with  stroke  of  5 .9  inches, 
and  the  weight  of  the  engine  being  3 .7  Ibs.  per  horse- 
power. In  the  200  horse-power  Anzani  radial  the 
cylinders  are  arranged  in  four  groups  of  five  each, 
acting  on  two  crank  pins.  The  bore  of  the  cylinders 
in  this  engine  is  the  same  as  in  the  three-cylinder,  but 
the  stroke  is  increased  to  5.5  inches.  The  rated  power 
is  developed  at  1,300  revolutions  per  minute,  and  the 
engine  complete  weighs  3 -4  Ibs.  per  horse-power. 

With  this  200  horse-power  Anzani,  a  petrol  con- 
sumption of  as  low  as  o  .49  Ibs.  of  fuel  per  brake  horse- 
power per  hour  has  been  obtained,  but  the  consumption 
of  lubricating  oil  is  compensatingly  high,  being  up  to 
one-fifth  of  the  fuel  used.  The  cylinders  are  set  desaxe 
with  the  crank  shaft,  and  are  of  cast-iron,  provided  with 
radiating  ribs  for  air-cooling;  they  are  attached  to  the 
crank  case  by  long  bolts  passing  through  bosses  at  the 
top  of  the  cylinders,  and  connected  to  other  bolts  at 
right  angles  through  the  crank  case.  The  tops  of  the 
cylinders  are  formed  flat,  and  seats  for  the  inlet  and 
exhaust  valves  are  formed  on  them.  The  pistons  are 
cast-iron,  fitted  with  ordinary  cast-iron  spring  rings. 
An  aluminium  crank  case  is  used,  being  made  in  two 
halves  connected  together  by  bolts,  which  latter  also 
attach  the  engine  to  the  frame  of  the  machine.  The 
crankshaft  is  of  nickel  steel,  made  hollow,  and  mounted 
on  ball-bearings  in  such  a  manner  that  practically  a 
combination  of  ball  and  plain  bearings  is  obtained; 
the  central  web  of  the  shaft  is  bent  to  bring  the  centres 
of  the  crank  pins  as  close  together  as  possible,  leaving 
only  room  for  the  connecting  rods,  and  the  pins  are 

421 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

1 80  degrees  apart.  Nickel  steel  valves  of  the  cone- 
seated,  poppet  type  are  fitted,  the  inlet  valves  being 
automatic,  and  those  for  the  exhaust  cam-operated  by 
means  of  push-rods.  With  an  engine  having  such  a 
number  of  cylinders  a  very  uniform  rotation  of  the 
crankshaft  is  obtained,  and  in  actual  running  there  are 
always  five  of  the  cylinders  giving  impulses  to  the 
crankshaft  at  the  same  time. 

An  interesting  type  of  pioneer  radial  engine  was  the 
Farcot,  in  which  the  cylinders  were  arranged  in  a 
horizontal  plane,  with  a  vertical  crankshaft  which 
operated  the  air-screw  through  bevel  gearing.  This 
was  an  eight-cylinder  engine,  developing  64  horse- 
power at  1,200  revolutions  per  minute.  The  R.E.P. 
type,  in  the  early  days,  was  a  '  fan  *  engine,  but  the 
designer,  M.  Robert  Pelterie,  turned  from  this  design 
to  a  seven-cylinder  radial,  which  at  1,100  revolutions 
per  minute  gave  95  horse-power.  Several  makers 
entered  into  radial  engine  development  in  the  years 
immediately  preceding  the  War,  and  in  1914  there 
were  some  twenty-two  different  sizes  and  types,  ranging 
from  30  to  600  horse-power,  being  made,  according  to 
report;  the  actual  construction  of  the  latter  size  at  this 
time,  however,  is  doubtful. 

Probably  the  best  example  of  radial  construction 
up  to  the  outbreak  of  War  was  the  Salmson  (Canton- 
Unne)  water-cooled,  of  which  in  1914  six  sizes  were 
listed  as  available.  Of  these  the  smallest  was  a  seven- 
cylinder  90  horse-power  engine,  and  the  largest,  rated 
at  600  horse-power,  had  eighteen  cylinders.  These 
engines,  during  the  War,  were  made  under  licence  by 
the  Dudbridge  Ironworks  in  Great  Britain. 

The  accompanying  diagram  shows  the  construction 

422 


THE  RADIAL  TYPE 

of  the  cylinders  in  the  200  horse-power  size,  showing 
the  method  of  cooling,  and  the  arrangement  of  the 
connecting  rods.  A  patent  planetary  gear,  also  shown 
in  the  diagram,  gives  exactly  the  same  stroke  to  all  the 
pistons.  The  complete  engine  has  fourteen  cylinders, 


Section  of  200  h.p.  Salmson  Radial  Engine. 

of  forged  steel  machined  all  over,  and  so  secured  to  the 
crank  case  that  any  one  can  be  removed  without  parting 
the  crank  case.  The  water-jackets  are  of  spun  copper, 
brazed  on  to  the  cylinder,  and  corrugated  so  as  to  admit 
of  free  expansion;  the  water  is  circulated  by  means  of 
a  centrifugal  pump.  The  pistons  are  of  cast-iron,  each 
fitted  with  three  rings,  and  the  connecting  rods  are  of 
high-grade  steel,  machined  all  over  and  fitted  with 
H.A.  423  2E 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

bushes  of  phosphor  bronze;  these  rods  are  connected 
to  a  central  collar,  carried  on  the  crank  pin  by  two  ball- 
bearings. The  crankshaft  has  a  single  throw,  and  is 
made  in  two  parts  to  allow  the  cage  for  carrying  the 
big  end-pins  of  the  connecting  rods  to  be  placed  in 
position. 

The  casing  is  in  two  parts,  on  one  of  which  the 
brackets  for  fixing  the  engine  are  carried,  while  the 
other  part  carries  the  valve-gear.  Bolts  secure  the  two 
parts  together.  The  mechanically-operated  steel  valves 
on  the  cylinders  are  each  fitted  with  double  springs, 
and  the  valves  are  operated  by  rods  and  levers.  Two 
Zenith  carburettors  are  fitted  on  the  rear  half  of  the 
crank  case,  and  short  induction  pipes  are  led  to  each 
cylinder;  each  of  the  carburettors  is  heated  by  the 
exhaust  gases.  Ignition  is  by  two  high-tension  magnetos, 
and  a  compressed  air  self-starting  arrangement  is 
provided.  Two  oil  pumps  are  fitted  for  lubricating 
purposes,  one  of  which  forces  oil  to  the  crankshaft  and 
connecting-rod  bearings,  while  the  second  forces  oil  to 
the  valve  gear,  the  cylinders  being  so  arranged  that  the 
oil  which  flows  along  the  walls  cannot  flood  the  lower 
cylinders.  This  engine  operates  upon  a  six-stroke 
cycle,  a  rather  rare  arrangement  for  internal  combustion 
engines  of  the  electrical  ignition  type;  this  is  done  in 
order  to  obtain  equal  angular  intervals  for  the  working 
impulses  imparted  to  the  rotating  crankshaft,  as  the 
cylinders  are  arranged  in  groups  of  seven,  and  all  act 
upon  the  one  crankshaft.  The  angle,  therefore,  between 
the  impulses  is  77^  degrees.  A  diagram  is  inset  giving 
a  side  view  of  the  engine,  in  order  to  show  the  grouping 
of  the  cylinders. 

The  600  horse-power  Salmson  engine  was  designed 

424 


THE  RADIAL  TYPE 

with  a  view  to  fitting  to  airships,  and  was  in  reality  two 
nine-cylindered  engines,  with  a  gear-box  connecting 
them;  double  air-screws  were  fitted,  and  these  were  so 
arranged  that  either  or  both  of  them  might  be  driven 
by  either  or  both  engines;  in  addition  to  this,  the  two 
engines  were  complete  and  separate  engines  as  regards 


Salmson  200  h.p.  Radial  Engine,  Side  View. 

carburation  and  ignition,  etc.,  so  that  they  could  be 
run  independently  of  each  other.  The  cylinders  were 
exceptionally  'long  stroke,'  being  5-9  inches  bore  to 
8.27  inches  stroke,  and  the  rated  power  was  developed 
at  1,200  revolutions  per  minute,  the  weight  of  the 

425 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

complete  engine  being  only  4.1  Ibs.  per  horse-power  at 
the  normal  rating. 

A  type  of  engine  specially  devised  for  airship  pro- 
pulsion is  that  in  which  the  cylinders  are  arranged 
horizontally  instead  of  vertically,  the  main  advantages  of 
this  form  being  the  reduction  of  head  resistance  and 
less  obstruction  to  the  view  of  the  pilot.  A  casing, 
mounted  on  the  top  of  the  engine,  supports  the  air- 
screw, which  is  driven  through  bevel  gearing  from  the 
upper  end  of  the  crankshaft.  With  this  type  of  engine 
a  better  rate  of  air-screw  efficiency  is  obtained  by  gearing 
the  screw  down  to  half  the  rate  of  revolution  of  the 
engine,  this  giving  a  more  even  torque.  The  petrol 
consumption  of  the  type  is  very  low,  being  only  0-48 
Ibs.  per  horse-power  per  hour,  and  equal  economy  is 
claimed  as  regards  lubricating  oil,  a  consumption  of  as 
little  as  0.04  Ibs.  per  horse-power  per  hour  being 
claimed. 

Certain  American  radial  engines  were  made  previous 
to  1914,  the  principal  being  the  Albatross  six-cylinder 
engines  of  50  and  100  horse-powers.  Of  these  the 
smaller  size  was  air-cooled,  with  cylinders  of  4 .5  inches 
bore  and  5  inches  stroke,  developing  the  rated  power  at 
1,230  revolutions  per  minute,  with  a  weight  of  about 
5  Ibs.  per  horse-power.  The  100  horse-power  size 
had  cylinders  of  5.5  inches  bore,  developing  its  rated 
power  at  1,230  revolutions  per  minute,  and  weighing 
only  2-75  Ibs.  per  horse-power.  This  engine  was 
markedly  similar  to  the  six-cylindered  Anzani,  having 
all  the  valves  mechanically  operated,  and  with  auxiliary 
exhaust  ports  at  the  bottoms  of  the  cylinders,  overrun 
by  long  pistons.  These  Albatross  engines  had  their 
cylinders  arranged  in  two  groups  of  three,  with  each 

426 


THE  RADIAL  TYPE 

group    of    three    pistons    operating    on    one    of  two 
crank  pins,  each  180  degrees  apart. 

The  radial  type  of  engine,  thanks  to  Charles  Manly, 
had  the  honour  of  being  first  in  the  field  as  regards  aero 
work.  Its  many  advantages,  among  which  may  be 
specially  noted  the  very  short  crankshaft  as  compared 
with  vertical,  Vee,  or  *  broad  arrow  '  type  of  engine, 
and  consequent  greater  rigidity,  ensure  it  consideration 
by  designers  of  to-day,  and  render  it  certain  that  the 
type  will  endure.  Enthusiasts  claim  that  the  '  broad 
arrow  *  type,  or  Vee  with  a  third  row  of  cylinders  inset 
between  the  original  two,  is  just  as  much  a  development 
from  the  radial  engine  as  from  the  vertical  and  resulting 
Vee;  however  this  may  be,  there  is  a  place  for  the  radial 
type  in  air-work  for  as  long  as  the  internal  combustion 
engine  remains  as  a  power  plant. 


427 


IV 

THE    ROTARY    TYPE 

M.  LAURENT  SEGUIN,  the  inventor  of  the  Gnome  rotary 
aero  engine,  provided  as  great  a  stimulus  to  aviation 
as  any  that  was  given  anterior  to  the  war  period,  and 
brought  about  a  great  advance  in  mechanical  flight, 
since  these  well-made  engines  gave  a  high-power  output 
for  their  weight,  and  were  extremely  smooth  in  running. 
In  the  rotary  design  the  crankshaft  of  the  engine  is 
stationary,  and  the  cylinders,  crank  case,  and  all  their 
adherent  parts  rotate;  the  working  is  thus  exactly 
opposite  in  principle  to  that  of  the  radial  type  of  aero 
engine,  and  the  advantage  of  the  rotary  lies  in  the 
considerable  flywheel  effect  produced  by  the  revolving 
cylinders,  with  consequent  evenness  of  torque.  Another 
advantage  is  that  air-cooling,  adopted  in  all  the  Gnome 
engines,  is  rendered  much  more  effective  by  the  rotation 
of  the  cylinders,  though  there  is  a  tendency  to  distortion 
through  the  leading  side  of  each  cylinder  being  more 
efficiently  cooled  than  the  opposite  side;  advocates  of 
other  types  are  prone  to  claim  that  the  air  resistance  to 
the  revolving  cylinders  absorbs  some  10  per  cent  of  the 
power  developed  by  the  rotary  engine,  but  that  has  not 
prevented  the  rotary  from  attaining  to  great  popularity 
as  a  prime  mover. 

There  were,  in  the  list  of  aero  engines  compiled  in 
1910,  five  rotary  engines  included,  all  air-cooled.    Three 

428 


THE  ROTARY  TYPE 

of  these  were  Gnome  engines,  and  two  of  the  make 
known  as  *  International/  They  ranged  from  21.5  to 
123  horse-power,  the  latter  being  rated  at  only  1.8  Ibs. 
weight  per  brake  horse-power,  and  having  fourteen 
cylinders,  4-33  inches  in  diameter  by  4-7  inches  stroke. 
By  1914  forty-three  different  sizes  and  types  of  rotary 
engine  were  being  constructed,  and  in  1913  five  rotary 
type  engines  were  entered  for  the  series  of  aeroplane 
engine  trials  held  in  Germany.  Minor  defects  ruled 
out  four  of  these,  and  only  the  German  Bayerischer 
Motoren  Flugzeugwerke  completed  the  seven-hour 
test  prescribed  for  competing  engines.  Its  large  fuel 
consumption  barred  this  engine  from  the  final  trials, 
the  consumption  being  some  0.95  pints  per  horse-power 
per  hour.  The  consumption  of  lubricating  oil,  also 
was  excessive,  standing  at  0.123  pint  per  horse-power 
per  hour.  The  engine  gave  37.5  effective  horse-power 
during  its  trial,  and  the  loss  due  to  air  resistance  was 
4  -6  horse-power,  about  1 1  per  cent.  The  accompanying 
drawing  shows  the  construction  of  the  engine,  in  which 
the  seven  cylinders  are  arranged  radially  on  the  crank 
case;  the  method  of  connecting  the  pistons  to  the  crank 
pins  can  be  seen.  The  mixture  is  drawn  through  the 
crank  chamber,  and  to  enter  the  cylinder  it  passes 
through  the  two  automatic  valves  in  the  crown  of  the 
piston;  the  exhaust  valves  are  situated  in  the  tops  of 
the  cylinders,  and  are  actuated  by  cams  and  push-rods. 
Cooling  of  the  cylinder  is  assisted  by  the  radial  rings, 
and  the  diameter  of  these  rings  is  increased  round  the 
hottest  part  of  the  cylinder.  When  long  flights  are 
undertaken  the  advantage  of  the  light  weight  of  this 
engine  is  more  than  counterbalanced  by  its  high  fuel 
and  lubricating  oil  consumption,  but  there  are  other 

429 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

makes  which  are  much  better  than  this  seven-cylinder 
German  in  respect  of  this. 

Rotation  of  the  cylinders  in  engines  of  this  type 
is  produced  by  the  side  pressure  of  the  pistons  on  the 
cylinder  walls,  and  in  order  to  prevent  this  pressure 


Bayeriseher  7  Cylinder  Rotary  Engine,  1913. 

from  becoming  abnormally  large  it  is  necessary  to  keep 
the  weight  of  the  piston  as  low  as  possible,  as  the  pressure 
is  produced  by  the  tangential  acceleration  and  retardation 
of  the  pis"ton.  On  the  upward  stroke  the  circumferential 
velocity  of  the  piston  is  rapidly  increased,  which  causes 
it  to  exert  a  considerable  tangential  pressure  on  the  side 
of  the  cylinder,  and  on  the  return  stroke  there  is  a 

430 


THE  ROTARY  TYPE 

corresponding  retarding  effect  due  to  the  reduction  of 
the  circumferential  velocity  of  the  piston.  These  side 
pressures  cause  an  appreciable  increase  in  the  tempera- 
tures of  the  cylinders  and  pistons,  which  makes  it 
necessary  to  keep  the  power  rating  of  the  engines  fairly 
low. 

Seguin  designed  his  first  Gnome  rotary  as  a  34 
horse-power  engine  when  run  at  a  speed  of  1,300 
revolutions  per  minute.  It  had  five  cylinders,  and  the 
weight  was  3.9  Ibs.  per  horse-power.  A  seven-cylinder 
model  soon  displaced  this  first  engine,  and  this  latter, 
with  a  total  weight  of  165  Ibs.,  gave  61-5  horse-power. 
The  cylinders  were  machined  out  of  solid  nickel  chrome- 
steel  ingots,  and  the  machining  was  carried  out  so  that 
the  cylinder  walls  were  under  J  of  an  inch  in  thickness. 
The  pistons  were  cast-iron,  fitted  each  with  two  rings, 
and  the  automatic  inlet  valve  to  the  cylinder  was  placed 
in  the  crown  of  the  piston.  The  connecting  rods,  of 
'  H  '  section,  were  of  nickel  chrome-steel,  and  the  large 
end  of  one  rod,  known  as  the  '  master-rod  '  embraced 
the  crank  pin;  on  the  end  of  this  rod  six  hollow  steel 
pins  were  carried,  and  to  these  the  remaining  six  con- 
necting-rods were  attached.  The  crankshaft  of  the 
engine  was  made  of  nickel  chrome-steel,  and  was  in 
two  parts  connected  together  at  the  crank  pin;  these 
two  parts,  after  the  master-rod  had  been  placed  in 
position  and  the  other  connecting  rods  had  been  attached 
to  it,  were  firmly  secured.  The  steel  crank  case  was 
made  in  five  parts,  the  two  central  ones  holding  the 
cylinders  in  place,  and  on  one  side  another  of  the  five 
castings  formed  a  cam-box,  to  the  outside  of  which 
was  secured  the  extension  to  which  the  air-screw  was 
attached.  On  the  other  side  of  the  crank  case  another 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

casting  carried  the  thrust-box,  and  the  whole  crank 
case,  with  its  cylinders  and  gear,  was  carried  on  the 
fixed  crank  shaft  by  means  of  four  ball-bearings,  one 
of  which  also  took  the  axial  thrust  of  the  air-screw. 

For  these  engines,  castor  oil  is  the  lubricant  usually 
adopted,  and  it  is  pumped  to  the  crankshaft  by  means 
of  a  gear-driven  oil  pump;  from  this  shaft  the  other 
parts  of  the  engine  are  lubricated  by  means  of  centri- 
fugal force,  and  in  actual  practice  sufficient  unburnt 
oil  passes  through  the  cylinders  to  lubricate  the  exhaust 
valve,  which  partly  accounts  for  the  high  rate  of  con- 
sumption of  lubricating  oil.  A  very  simple  carburettor 
of  the  floatless,  single-spray  type  was  used,  and  the 
mixture  was  passed  along  the  hollow  crankshaft  to  the 
interior  of  the  crank  case,  thence  through  the  automatic 
inlet  valves  in  the  tops  of  the  pistons  to  the  combustion 
chambers  of  the  cylinders.  Ignition  was  by  means  of  a 
high-tension  magneto  specially  geared  to  give  the 
correct  timing,  and  the  working  impulses  occurred  at 
equal  angular  intervals  of  102-85  degrees.  The  ignition 
was  timed  so  that  the  firing  spark  occurred  when  the 
cylinder  was  26  degrees  before  the  position  in  which 
the  piston  was  at  the  outer  end  of  its  stroke,  and  this 
timing  gave  a  maximum  pressure  in  the  cylinder  just 
after  the  piston  had  passed  this  position. 

By  1913,  eight  different  sizes  of  the  Gnome  engine 
were  being  constructed,  ranging  from  45  to  180  brake 
horse-power;  four  of  these  were  single-crank  engines, 
one  having  nine  and  the  other  three  having  seven 
cylinders.  The  remaining  four  were  constructed  with 
two  cranks;  three  of  them  had  fourteen  cylinders  apiece, 
ranged  in  groups  of  seven,  acting  on  the  cranks,  and 
the  one  other  had  eighteen  cylinders  ranged  in  two 

432 


THE  ROTARY  TYPE 

groups  of  nine,  acting  on  its  two  cranks.  Cylinders  of 
the  two-crank  engines  are  so  arranged  (in  the  fourteen- 
cylinder  type)  that  fourteen  equal  angular  impulses 
occur  during  each  cycle;  these  engines  are  supported 
on  bearings  on  both  sides  of  the  engine,  the  air-screw 
being  placed  outside  the  front  support.  In  the  eighteen- 
cylinder  model  the  impulses  occur  at  each  40  degrees 
of  angular  rotation  of  the  cylinders,  securing  an  extremely 
even  rotation  of  the  air-screw. 

In  1913  the  Gnome  Monosoupape  engine  was 
introduced,  a  model  in  which  the  inlet  valve  to  the 
cylinder  was  omitted,  while  the  piston  was  of  the  ordinary 
cast-iron  type.  A  single  exhaust  valve  in  the  cylinder 
head  was  operated  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  on  the 
previous  Gnome  engines,  and  the  fact  of  this  being  the 
only  valve  on  the  cylinder  gave  the  engine  its  name. 
Each  cylinder  contained  ports  at  the  bottom  which 
communicated  with  the  crank  chamber,  and  were 
overrun  by  the  piston  when  this  was  approaching  the 
bottom  end  of  its  stroke.  During  the  working  cycle  of 
the  engine  the  exhaust  valve  was  opened  early  to  allow 
the  exhaust  gases  to  escape  from  the  cylinder,  so  that 
by  the  time  the  piston  overran  the  ports  at  the  bottom 
the  pressure  within  the  cylinder  was  approximately 
equal  to  that  in  the  crank  case,  and  practically  no  flow 
of  gas  took  place  in  either  direction  through  the  ports. 
The  exhaust  valve  remained  open  as  usual  during  the 
succeeding  up-stroke  of  the  piston,  and  the  valve  was 
held  open  until  the  piston  had  returned  through  about 
one-third  of  its  downward  stroke,  thus  permitting  fresh 
air  to  enter  the  cylinder.  The  exhaust  valve  then  closed, 
and  the  downward  motion  of  the  piston,  continuing, 
caused  a  partial  vacuum  inside  the  cylinder;  when  the 

433 


A   HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

piston  overran  the  ports,  the  rich  mixture  from  the 
crank  case  immediately  entered.  The  cylinder  was 
then  full  of  the  mixture,  and  the  next  upward  stroke  of 
the  piston  compressed  the  charge;  upon  ignition  the 
working  cycle  was  repeated.  The  speed  variation  of 
this  engine  was  obtained  by  varying  the  extent  and 
duration  of  the  opening  of  the  exhaust  valves,  and  was 
controlled  by  the  pilot  by  hand-operated  levers  acting 
on  the  valve  tappet  rollers.  The  weight  per  horse- 
power of  these  engines  was  slightly  less  than  that  of  the 
two-valve  type,  while  the  lubrication  of  the  gudgeon 
pin  and  piston  showed  an  improvement,  so  that  a  lower 
lubricating  oil  consumption  was  obtained.  The  100 
horse-power  Gnome  Monosoupape  was  built  with  nine 
cylinders,  each  4.33  inches  bore  by  5.9  inches  stroke, 
and  it  developed  its  rated  power  at  1,200  revolutions 
per  minute. 

An  engine  of  the  rotary  type,  almost  as  well  known 
as  the  Gnome,  is  the  Clerget,  in  which  both  cylinders 
and  crank  case  are  made  of  steel,  the  former  having  the 
usual  radial  fins  for  cooling.  In  this  type  the  inlet  and 
exhaust  valves  are  both  located  in  the  cylinder  head, 
and  mechanically  operated  by  push-rods  and  rockers. 
Pipes  are  carried  from  the  crank  case  to  the  inlet  valve 
casings  to  convey  the  mixture  to  the  cylinders,  a  car- 
burettor of  the  central  needle  type  being  used.  The 
carburetted  mixture  is  taken  into  the  crank  case  chamber 
in  a  manner  similar  to  that  of  the  Gnome  engine.  Pistons 
of  aluminium  alloy,  with  three  cast-iron  rings,  are  fitted, 
the  top  ring  being  of  the  obturator  type.  The  large  end 
of  one  of  the  nine  connecting  rods  embraces  the  crank 
pin  and  the  pressure  is  taken  on  two  ball-bearings 
housed  in  the  end  of  the  rod.  This  carries  eight  pins, 

434 


THE  ROTARY  TYPE 

to  which  the  other  rods  are  attached,  and  the  main 
rod  being  rigid  between  the  crank  pin  and  piston  pin 
determines  the  position  of  the  pistons.  Hollow  con- 
necting-rods are  used,  and  the  lubricating  oil  for  the 
piston  pins  passes  from  the  crankshaft  through  the 
centres  of  the  rods.  Inlet  and  exhaust  valves  can  be 


Clerget  115  h.p.  Rotary  Aero  Engine,  Side  Elevation. 

set  quite  independently  of  one  another — a  useful  point, 
since  the  correct  timing  of  the  opening  of  these  valves 
is  of  importance.  The  inlet  valve  opens  4  degrees  from 
top  centre  and  closes  after  the  bottom  dead  centre  of 
the  piston;  the  exhaust  valve  opens  68  degrees  before 
the  bottom  centre  and  closes  4  degrees  after  the  top 
dead  centre  of  the  piston.  The  magnetos  are  set  to 
give  the  spark  in  the  cylinder  at  25  degrees  before 
the  end  of  the  compression  stroke — two  high-tension 
magnetos  are  used;  if  desired,  the  second  one  can  be 

435 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

adjusted  to  give  a  later  spark  for  assisting  the  starting 
of  the  engine.  The  lubricating  oil  pump  is  of  the 
valveless  two-plunger  type,  so  geared  that  it  runs  at 
seven  revolutions  to  100  revolutions  of  the  engine;  by 
counting  the  pulsations  the  speed  of  the  engine  can  be 
quickly  calculated  by  multiplying  the  pulsations  by  100 
and  dividing  by  seven.  In  the  115  horse-power  nine- 
cylinder  Clerget  the  cylinders  are  4.7  bore  with  a  6-3 
inches  stroke,  and  the  rated  power  of  the  engine  is 
obtained  at  1,200  revolutions  per  minute.  The  petrol 
consumption  is  0.75  pint  per  horse-power  per  hour. 

A  third  rotary  aero  engine,  equally  well  known 
with  the  foregoing  two,  is  the  Le  Rhone,  made  in  four 
different  sizes  with  power  outputs  of  from  50  to  160 
horse-power;  the  two  smaller  sizes  are  single  crank 
engines  with  seven  and  nine  cylinders  respectively, 
and  the  larger  sizes  are  of  double-crank  design,  being 
merely  the  two  smaller  sizes  doubled — fourteen  and 
eighteen-cylinder  engines.  The  inlet  and  exhaust 
valves  are  located  in  the  cylinder  head,  and  both  valves 
are  mechanically  operated  by  one  push-rod  and  rocker, 
radial  pipes  from  crank  case  to  inlet  valve  casing  taking 
the  mixture  to  the  cylinders.  The  exhaust  valves  are 
placed  on  the  leading,  or  air-screw  side,  of  the  engine, 
in  order  to  get  the  fullest  possible  cooling  effect.  The 
rated  power  of  each  type  of  engine  is  obtained  at  1,200 
revolutions  per  minute,  and  for  all  four  sizes  the  cylinder 
bore  is  4.13  inches,  with  a  5.5  inches  piston  stroke. 
Thin  cast-iron  liners  are  shrunk  into  the  steel  cylinders 
in  order  to  reduce  the  amount  of  piston  friction. 
Although  the  Le  Rhone  engines  are  constructed 
practically  throughout  of  steel,  the  weight  is  only  2.9 
Ibs.  per  horse-power  in  the  eighteen-cylinder  type. 

436 


THE  ROTARY  TYPE 

American  enterprise  in  the  construction  of  the 
rotary  type  is  perhaps  best  illustrated  in  the  '  Gyro  ' 
engine;  this  was  first  constructed  with  inlet  valves 
in  the  heads  of  the  pistons,  after  the  Gnome  pattern, 
the  exhaust  valves  being  in  the  heads  of  the  cylinders. 
The  inlet  valve  in  the  crown  of  each  piston  was  mechani- 
cally operated  in  a  very  ingenious  manner  by  the 
oscillation  of  the  connecting-rod.  The  Gyro-Duplex 


Gyro- Duplex  Rotary  Engine,  Cross  Section. 

engine  superseded  this  original  design,  and  a  small 
cross-section  illustration  of  this  is  appended.  It  is 
constructed  in  seven  and  nine-cylinder  sizes,  with  a 
power  range  of  from  50  to  100  horse-power;  with  the 
largest  size  the  low  weight  of  2 .5  Ibs.  per  horse-power 
is  reached.  The  design  is  of  considerable  interest  to 
the  internal  combustion  engineer,  for  it  embodies  a 
piston  valve  for  controlling  auxiliary  exhaust  ports, 
which  also  acts  as  the  inlet  valve  to  the  cylinder.  The 

437 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

piston  uncovers  the  auxiliary  ports  when  it  reaches  the 
bottom  of  its  stroke,  and  at  the  end  of  the  power  stroke 
the  piston  is  in  such  a  position  that  the  exhaust  can 
escape  over  the  top  of  it.  The  exhaust  valve  in  the 
cylinder  head  is  then  opened  by  means  of  the  push-rod 
and  rocker,  and  is  held  open  until  the  piston  has  com- 
pleted its  upward  stroke  and  returned  through  more 
than  half  its  subsequent  return  stroke.  When  the 
exhaust  valve  closes,  the  cylinder  has  a  charge  of  fresh 
air,  drawn  in  through  the  exhaust  valve,  and  the  further 
motion  of  the  piston  causes  a  partial  vacuum;  by  the 
time  the  piston  reaches  bottom  dead  centre  the  piston- 
valve  has  moved  up  to  give  communication  between 
the  cylinder  and  the  crank  case,  therefore  the  mixture 
is  drawn  into  the  cylinder.  Both  the  piston  valve  and 
exhaust  valve  are  operated  by  cams  formed  on  the  one 
casting,  which  rotates  at  seven-eighths  engine  speed 
for  the  seven-cylinder  type,  and  nine-tenths  engine 
speed  for  the  nine-cylinder  engines.  Each  of  these 
cams  has  four  or  five  points  respectively,  to  suit  the 
number  of  cylinders. 

The  steel  cylinders  are  machined  from  solid  forgings 
and  provided  with  webs  for  air-cooling  as  shown.  Cast- 
iron  pistons  are  used,  and  are  connected  to  the  crank- 
shaft in  the  same  manner  as  with  the  Gnome  and  Le 
Rhone  engines.  Petrol  is  sprayed  into  the  crank  case 
by  a  small  geared  pump  and  the  mixture  is  taken  from 
there  to  the  piston  valves  by  radial  pipes.  Two  separate 
pumps  are  used  for  lubrication,  one  forcing  oil  to  the 
crank-pin  bearing  and  the  other  spraying  the  cylinders. 

Among  other  designs  of  rotary  aero  engines  the 
E.J.C.  is  noteworthy,  in  that  the  cylinders  and  crank 
case  of  this  engine  rotate  in  opposite  directions,  and 

438 


THE  ROTARY  TYPE 

two  air-screws  are  used,  one  being  attached  to  the  end 
of  the  crankshaft,  and  the  other  to  the  crank  case. 
Another  interesting  type  is  the  Burlat  rotary,  in  which 
both  the  cylinders  and  crankshaft  rotate  in  the  same 
direction,  the  rotation  of  the  crankshaft  being  twice  that 
of  the  cylinders  as  regards  speed.  This  engine  is 
arranged  to  work  on  the  four-stroke  cycle  with  the 
crankshaft  making  four,  and  the  cylinders  two,  revolutions 
per  cycle. 

It  would  appear  that  the  rotary  type  of  engine  is 
capable  of  but  little  more  improvement — save  for  such 
devices  as  these  of  the  last  two  engines  mentioned,  there 
is  little  that  Laurent  Seguin  has  not  already  done  in  the 
Gnome  type.  The  limitation  of  the  rotary  lies  in  its 
high  fuel  and  lubricating  oil  consumption,  which 
renders  it  unsuited  for  long-distance  aero  work;  it 
was,  in  the  war  period,  an  admirable  engine  for  such 
short  runs  as  might  be  involved  in  patrol  work  *  over 
the  lines,'  and  for  similar  purposes,  but  the  water- 
cooled  Vee  or  even  vertical,  with  its  much  lower  fuel 
consumption,  was  and  is  to  be  preferred  for  distance 
work.  The  rotary  air-cooled  type  has  its  uses,  and  for 
them  it  will  probably  remain  among  the  range  of 
current  types  for  some  time  to  come.  Experience  of 
matters  aeronautical  is  sufficient  to  show,  however, 
that  prophecy  in  any  direction  is  most  unsafe. 


H.A.  439  2F 


THE    HORIZONTALLY-OPPOSED    ENGINE 

AMONG  the  first  internal  combustion  engines  to  be 
taken  into  use  with  aircraft  were  those  of  the  horizontally- 
opposed  four-stroke  cycle  type,  and,  in  every  case  in 
which  these  engines  were  used,  their  excellent  balance 
and  extremely  even  torque  rendered  them  ideal — 
until  the  tremendous  increase  in  power  requirements 
rendered  the  type  too  long  and  bulky  for  placing  in  the 
fuselage  of  an  aeroplane.  As  power  increased,  there 
came  a  tendency  toward  placing  cylinders  radially  round 
a  central  crankshaft,  and,  as  in  the  case  of  the  early 
Anzani,  it  may  be  said  that  the  radial  engine  grew  out 
of  the  horizontal  opposed  piston  type.  There  were, 
in  1 9 1  o — that  is,  in  the  early  days  of  small  power  units, 
ten  different  sizes  of  the  horizontally  opposed  engine 
listed  for  manufacture,  but  increase  in  power  requirements 
practically  ruled  out  the  type  for  air  work. 

The  Darracq  firm  were  the  leading  makers  of  these 
engines  in  1910;  their  smallest  size  was  a  24  horse- 
power engine,  with  two  cylinders  each  of  5.1  inches 
bore  by  4.7  inches  stroke.  This  engine  developed  its 
rated  power  at  1,500  revolutions  per  minute,  and  worked 
out  at  a  weight  of  5  Ibs.  per  horse-power.  With  these 
engines  the  cranks  are  so  placed  that  two  regular  impulses 
are  given  to  the  crankshaft  for  each  cycle  of  working, 
an  arrangement  which  permits  of  very  even  balancing  of 

440 


THE   HORIZONTALLY-OPPOSED   ENGINE 

the  inertia  forces  of  the  engine.  The  Darracq  firm  also 
made  a  four-cylindered  horizontal  opposed  piston  engine, 
in  which  two  revolutions  were  given  to  the  crankshaft 
per  revolution,  at  equal  angular  intervals. 

The  Dutheil-Chambers  was  another  engine  of  this  type, 
and  had  the  distinction  of  being  the  second  largest  con-, 
structed.  At  1,000  revolutions  per  minute  it  developed 
97  horse-power;  its  four  cylinders  were  each  of  4.93 
inches  bore  by  1 1  -8  inches  stroke — an  abnormally 
long  stroke  in  comparison  with  the  bore.  The  weight 
— which  owing  to  the  build  of  the  engine  and  its  length 
of  stroke  was  bound  to  be  rather  high,  actually  amounted 
to  8 .2  Ibs.  per  horse-power.  Water  cooling  was  adopted, 
and  the  engine  was,  like  the  Darracq  four-cylinder 
type,  so  arranged  as  to  give  two  impulses  per 
revolution  at  equal  angular  intervals  of  crankshaft 
rotation. 

One  of  the  first  engines  of  this  type  to  be  constructed 
in  England  was  the  Alvaston,  a  water-cooled  model 
which  was  made  in  20,  30,  and  50  brake  horse-power 
sizes,  the  largest  being  a  four-cylinder  engine.  All 
three  sizes  were  constructed  to  run  at  1,200  revolutions 
per  minute.  In  this  make  the  cylinders  were  secured 
to  the  crank  case  by  means  of  four  long  tie  bolts  passing 
through  bridge  pieces  arranged  across  the  cylinder 
heads,  thus  relieving  the  cylinder  walls  of  all  longitudinal 
explosion  stresses.  These  bridge  pieces  were  formed 
from  chrome  vanadium  steel  and  milled  to  an  *  H  ' 
section,  and  the  bearings  for  the  valve-tappet  were 
forged  solid  with  them.  Special  attention  was  given 
to  the  machining  of  the  interiors  of  the  cylinders  and 
the  combustion  heads,  with  the  result  that  the  excep- 
tionally high  compression  of  95  Ibs.  per  square  inch 

441 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

was  obtained,  giving  a  very  flexible  engine.  The  cylinder 
heads  were  completely  water-jacketed,  and  copper 
water-jackets  were  also  fitted  round  the  cylinders.  The 
mechanically  operated  valves  were  actuated  by  specially 
shaped  cams,  and  were  so  arranged  that  only  two  cams 
were  required  for  the  set  of  eight  valves.  The  inlet 
valves  at  both  ends  of  the  engine  were  connected  by  a 
single  feed-pipe  to  which  the  carburettor  was  attached, 
the  induction  piping  being  arranged  above  the  engine 
in  an  easily  accessible  position.  Auxiliary  air  ports 
were  provided  in  the  cylinder  walls  so  that  the  pistons 
overran  them  at  the  end  of  their  stroke.  A  single 
vertical  shaft  running  in  ball-bearings  operated  the 
valves  and  water  circulating  pump,  being  driven  by 
spiral  gearing  from  the  crankshaft  at  half  speed.  In 
addition  to  the  excellent  balance  obtained  with  this 
engine,  the  makers  claimed  with  justice  that  the 
number  of  working  parts  was  reduced  to  an  absolute 
minimum. 

In  the  two-cylinder  Darracq,  the  steel  cylinders 
were  machined  from  solid,  and  auxiliary  exhaust  ports, 
overrun  by  the  piston  at  the  inner  end  of  its  stroke, 
were  provided  in  the  cylinder  walls,  consisting  of  a 
circular  row  of  drilled  holes — this  arrangement  was 
subsequently  adopted  on  some  of  the  Darracq  racing 
car  engines.  The  water  jackets  were  of  copper,  soldered 
to  the  cylinder  walls;  both  the  inlet  and  exhaust  valves 
were  located  in  the  cylinder  heads,  being  operated  by 
rockers  and  push-rods  actuated  by  cams  on  the  half- 
time  shaft  driven  from  one  end  of  the  crankshaft. 
Ignition  was  by  means  of  a  high-tension  magneto,  and 
long  induction  pipes  connected  the  ends  of  the  cylinders 
to  the  carburettor,  the  latter  being  placed  underneath 

442 


THE   HORIZONTALLY-OPPOSED   ENGINE 

the  engine.  Lubrication  was  effected  by  spraying  oil  into 
the  crank  case  by  means  of  a  pump,  and  a  second  pump 
circulated  the  cooling  water. 

Another  good  example  of  this  type  of  engine  was 
the  Eole,  which  had  eight  opposed  pistons,  each  pair 
of  which  was  actuated  by  a  common  combustion  chamber 
at  the  centre  of  the  engine,  two  crankshafts  being  placed 
at  the  outer  ends  of  the  engine.  This  reversal  of  the 
ordinary  arrangement  had  two  advantages;  it  simplified 
induction,  and  further  obviated  the  need  for  cylinder 
heads,  since  the  explosion  drove  at  two  piston  heads 
instead  of  at  one  piston  head  and  the  top  of  the  cylinder; 
against  this,  however,  the  engine  had  to  be  constructed 
strongly  enough  to  withstand  the  longitudinal  stresses 
due  to  the  explosions,  as  the  cranks  are  placed  on  the 
outer  ends  and  the  cylinders  and  crank-cases  take  the 
full  force  of  each  explosion.  Each  crankshaft  drove  a 
separate  air-screw. 

This  pattern  of  engine  was  taken  up  by  the  Dutheil- 
Chambers  firm  in  the  pioneer  days  of  aircraft,  when  the 
firm  in  question  produced  seven  different  sizes 
of  horizontal  engines.  The  Demoiselle  monoplane 
used  by  Santos-Dumont  in  1909  was  fitted  with 
a  two-cylinder,  horizontally-opposed  Dutheil-Chambers 
engine,  which  developed  25  brake  horse-power  at  a 
speed  of  1,100  revolutions  per  minute,  the  cylinders 
being  of  5  inches  bore  by  5-1  inches  stroke,  and  the 
total  weight  of  the  engine  being  some  120  Ibs.  The 
crankshafts  of  these  engines  were  usually  fitted  with 
steel  flywheels  in  order  to  give  a  very  even  torque,  the 
wheels  being  specially  constructed  with  wire  spokes. 
In  all  the  Dutheil-Chambers  engines  water  cooling 
was  adopted,  and  the  cylinders  were  attached  to  the 

443 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

crank  cases  by  means  of  long  bolts  passing  through  the 
combustion  heads. 

For  their  earliest  machines,  the  Clement-Bayard 
firm  constructed  horizontal  engines  of  the  opposed  piston 
type.  The  best  known  of  these  was  the  30  horse-power 
size,  which  had  cylinders  of  4 .7  inches  diameter  by  5  «i 
inches  stroke,  and  gave  its  rated  power  at  1,200 
revolutions  per  minute.  In  this  engine  the  steel  cylinders 
were  secured  to  the  crank  case  by  flanges,  and  radiating 
ribs  were  formed  around  the  barrel  to  assist  the  air- 
cooling.  Inlet  and  exhaust  valves  were  actuated  by 
push-rods  and  rockers  actuated  from  the  second  motion 
shaft  mounted  above  the  crank  case;  this  shaft  also 
drove  the  high-tension  magneto  with  which  the  engine 
was  fitted.  A  ring  of  holes  drilled  round  each  cylinder 
constituted  auxiliary  ports  which  the  piston  uncovered 
at  the  inner  end  of  its  stroke,  and  these  were  of  con- 
siderable assistance  not  only  in  expelling  exhaust  gases, 
but  also  in  moderating  the  temperature  of  the  cylinder 
and  of  the  main  exhaust  valve  fitted  in  the  cylinder  head, 
A  water-cooled  Clement-Bayard  horizontal  engine  was 
also  made,  and  in  this  the  auxiliary  exhaust  ports  were 
not  embodied;  except  in  this  particular,  the  engine  was 
very  similar  to  the  water-cooled  Darracq. 

The  American  Ashmusen  horizontal  engine, 
developing  100  horse-power,  is  probably  the  largest 
example  of  this  type  constructed.  It  was  made  with 
six  cylinders  arranged  on  each  side  of  a  common  crank 
case,  with  long  bolts  passing  through  the  cylinder 
heads  to  assist  in  holding  them  down.  The  induction 
piping  and  valve-operating  gear  were  arranged  below 
the  engine,  and  the  half-speed  shaft  carried  the  air- 
screw. 

444 


THE   HORIZONTALLY-OPPOSED   ENGINE 

Messrs  Palons  and  Beuse,  Germans,  constructed 
a  light-weight,  air-cooled,  horizontally-opposed  engine, 
two-cylindered.  In  this  the  cast-iron  cylinders  were 
made  very  thin,  and  were  secured  to  the  crank  case  by 
bolts  passing  through  lugs  cast  on  the  outer  ends  of  the 
cylinders;  the  crankshaft  was  made  hollow,  and  holes 
were  drilled  through  the  webs  of  the  connecting-rods 
in  order  to  reduce  the  weight.  The  valves  were  fitted 
to  the  cylinder  heads,  the  inlet  valves  being  of  the 
automatic  type,  while  the  exhaust  valves  were  mechani- 
cally operated  from  the  cam-shaft  by  means  of  rockers 
and  push-rods.  Two  carburettors  were  fitted,  to  reduce 
the  induction  piping  to  a  minimum;  one  was  attached 
to  each  combustion  chamber,  and  ignition  was  by  the 
normal  high-tension  magneto  driven  from  the  half- 
time  shaft. 

There  was  also  a  Nieuport  two-cylinder  air-cooled 
horizontal  engine,  developing  35  horse-power  when 
running  at  1,300  revolutions  per  minute,  and  being 
built  at  a  weight  of  5  Ibs.  per  horse-power.  The  cylinders 
were  of  5.3  inches  diameter  by  5.9  inches  stroke;  the 
engine  followed  the  lines  of  the  Darracq  and  Dutheil- 
Chambers  pretty  closely,  and  thus  calls  for  no  special 
description. 

The  French  Kolb-Danvin  engine  of  the  horizontal 
type,  first  constructed  in  1905,  was  probably  the  first 
two-stroke  cycle  engine  designed  to  be  applied  to  the 
propulsion  of  aircraft;  it  never  got  beyond  the  experi- 
mental stage,  although  its  trials  gave  very  good  results. 
Stepped  pistons  were  adopted,  and  the  charging  pump 
at  one  end  was  used  to  scavenge  the  power  cylinder  at 
the  other  ends  of  the  engine,  the  transfer  ports  being 
formed  in  the  main  casting.  The  openings  of  these 

445 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

ports  were  controlled  at  both  ends  by  the  pistons,  and 
the  location  of  the  ports  appears  to  have  made  it 
necessary  to  take  the  exhaust  from  the  bottom  of  one 
cylinder  and  from  the  top  of  the  other.  The  carburetted 
mixture  was  drawn  into  the  scavenging  cylinders,  and 
the  usual  deflectors  were  cast  on  the  piston  heads  to 
assist  in  the  scavenging  and  to  prevent  the  fresh  gas 
from  passing  out  of  the  exhaust  ports. 


446 


VI 

THE    TWO-STROKE    CYCLE    ENGINE 

ALTHOUGH  it  has  been  little  used  for  aircraft  propulsion, 
the  possibilities  of  the  two-stroke  cycle  engine  render 
some  study  of  it  desirable  in  this  brief  review  of  the 
various  types  of  internal  combustion  engine  applicable 
both  to  aeroplanes  and  airships.  Theoretically  the 
two-stroke  cycle  engine — or  as  it  is  more  commonly 
termed,  the  *  two-stroke/  is  the  ideal  power  producer; 
the  doubling  of  impulses  per  revolution  of  the  crank- 
shaft should  render  it  of  very  much  more  even  torque 
than  the  four-stroke  cycle  types,  while,  theoretically, 
there  should  be  a  considerable  saving  of  fuel,  owing  to 
the  doubling  of  the  number  of  power  strokes  per  total 
of  piston  strokes.  In  practice,  however,  the  inefficient 
scavenging  of  virtually  every  two-stroke  cycle  engine 
produced  nullifies  or  more  than  nullifies  its  advantages 
over  the  four-stroke  cycle  engine;  in  many  types,  too, 
there  is  a  waste  of  fuel  gases  through  the  exhaust  ports, 
and  much  has  yet  to  be  done  in  the  way  of  experiment 
and  resulting  design  before  the  two-stroke  cycle  engine 
can  be  regarded  as  equally  reliable,  economical,  and 
powerful  with  its  elder  brother. 

The  first  commercially  successful  engine  operating 
on  the  two-stroke  cycle  was  invented  by  Mr  Dugald 
Clerk,  who  in  1881  proved  the  design  feasible.  As  is 
more  or  less  generally  understood,  the  exhaust  gases 

447 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

of  this  engine  are  discharged  from  the  cylinder  during 
the  time  that  the  piston  is  passing  the  inner  dead 
centre,  and  the  compression,  combustion,  and  expansion 
of  the  charge  take  place  in  similar  manner  to  that  of 
the  four-stroke  cycle  engine.  The  exhaust  period  is 
usually  controlled  by  the  piston  overrunning  ports  in 
the  cylinder  at  the  end  of  its  working  stroke,  these  ports 
communicating  direct  with  the  outer  air — the  complica- 
tion of  an  exhaust  valve  is  thus  obviated;  immediately 
after  the  escape  of  the  exhaust  gases,  charging  of  the 
cylinder  occurs,  and  the  fresh  gas  may  be  introduced 
either  through  a  valve  in  the  cylinder  head  or  through 
ports  situated  diametrically  opposite  to  the  exhaust 
ports.  The  continuation  of  the  outward  stroke  of  the 
piston,  after  the  exhaust  ports  have  been  closed,  com- 
presses the  charge  into  the  combustion  chamber  of  the 
cylinder,  and  the  ignition  of  the  mixture  produces  a 
recurrence  of  the  working  stroke. 

Thus,  theoretically,  is  obtained  the  maximum  of 
energy  with  the  minimum  of  expenditure;  in  practice, 
however,  the  scavenging  of  the  power  cylinder,  a  matter 
of  great  importance  in  all  internal  combustion  engines, 
is  often  imperfect,  owing  to  the  opening  of  the  exhaust 
ports  being  of  relatively  short  duration;  clearing  the 
exhaust  gases  out  of  the  cylinder  is  not  fully  accomplished, 
and  these  gases  mix  with  the  fresh  charge  and  detract 
from  its  efficiency.  Similarly,  owing  to  the  shorter 
space  of  time  allowed,  the  charging  of  the  cylinder 
with  the  fresh  mixture  is  not  so  efficient  as  in  the  four- 
stroke  cycle  type;  the  fresh  charge  is  usually  compressed 
slightly  in  a  separate  chamber — crank  case,  independent 
cylinder,  or  charging  pump,  and  is  delivered  to  the 
working  cylinder  during  the  beginning  of  the  return 

448 


THE  TWO-STROKE  CYCLE  ENGINE 

stroke  of  the  piston,  while  in  engines  working  on  the 
four-stroke  cycle  principle  a  complete  stroke  is  devoted 
to  the  expulsion  of  the  waste  gases  of  the  exhaust,  and 
another  full  stroke  to  recharging  the  cylinder  with  fresh 
explosive  mixture. 

Theoretically  the  two-stroke  and  the  four-stroke 
cycle  engines  possess  exactly  the  same  thermal  efficiency, 
but  actually  this  is  modified  by  a  series  of  practical 
conditions  which  to  some  extent  tend  to  neutralise  the 
very  strong  case  in  favour  of  the  two-stroke  cycle  engine. 
The  specific  capacity  of  the  engine  operating  on  the 
two-stroke  principle  is  theoretically  twice  that  of  one 
operating  on  the  four-stroke  cycle,  and  consequently, 
for  equal  power,  the  former  should  require  only  about 
half  the  cylinder  volume  of  the  latter;  and,  owing  to  the 
greater  superficial  area  of  the  smaller  cylinder,  relatively, 
the  latter  should  be  far  more  easily  cooled  than  the 
larger  four-stroke  cycle  cylinder;  thus  it  should  be 
possible  to  get  higher  compression  pressures,  which 
in  turn  should  result  in  great  economy  of  working. 
Also  the  obtaining  of  a  working  impulse  in  the  cylinder 
for  each  revolution  of  the  crankshaft  should  give  a 
great  advantage  in  regularity  of  rotation — which  it 
undoubtedly  does — and  the  elimination  of  the  operating 
gear  for  the  valves,  inlet  and  exhaust,  should  give  greater 
simplicity  of  design. 

In  spite  of  all  these  theoretical — and  some  practical 
— advantages  the  four-stroke  cycle  engine  was  uni- 
versally adopted  for  aircraft  work;  owing  to  the  practical 
equality  of  the  two  principles  of  operation,  so  far  as 
thermal  efficiency  and  friction  losses  are  concerned, 
there  is  no  doubt  that  the  simplicity  of  design  (in  theory) 
and  high  power  output  to  weight  ratio  (also  in  theory) 

449 


A  HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

ought  to  have  given  the  *  two-stroke  '  a  place  on  the 
aeroplane.  But  this  engine  has  to  be  developed  so  as 
to  overcome  its  inherent  drawbacks;  better  scavenging 
methods  have  yet  to  be  devised — for  this  is  the  principal 
drawback — before  the  two-stroke  can  come  to  its  own 
as  a  prime  mover  for  aircraft. 

Mr  Dugald  Clerk's  original  two-stroke  cycle  engine 
is  indicated  roughly,  as  regards  principle,  by  the 
accompanying  diagram,  from  which  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  elimination  of  the  ordinary  inlet  and  exhaust 
valves  of  the  four-stroke  type  is  more  than  compensated 
by  a  separate  cylinder  which,  having  a  piston  worked 
from  the  connecting-rod  of  the  power  cylinder,  was 
used  to  charging,  drawing  the  mixture  from  the 
carburettor  past  the  valve  in  the  top  of  the  charging 
cylinder,  and  then  forcing  it  through  the  connecting 
pipe  into  the  power  cylinder.  The  inlet  valves  both  on 
the  charging  and  the  power  cylinders  are  automatic; 
when  the  power  piston  is  near  the  bottom  of  its  stroke 
the  piston  in  the  charging  cylinder  is  compressing  the 
carburetted  air,  so  that  as  soon  as  the  pressure  within 
the  power  cylinder  is  relieved  by  the  exit  of  the  burnt 
gases  through  the  exhaust  ports  the  pressure  in  the 
charging  cylinder  causes  the  valve  in  the  head  of  the 
power  cylinder  to  open,  and  fresh  mixture  flows  into 
the  cylinder,  replacing  the  exhaust  gases.  After  the 
piston  has  again  covered  the  exhaust  ports  the  mixture 
begins  to  be  compressed,  thus  automatically  closing 
the  inlet  valve.  Ignition  occurs  near  the  end  of  the 
compression  stroke,  and  the  working  stroke  immediately 
follows,  thus  giving  an  impulse  to  the  crankshaft  on 
every  down  stroke  of  the  piston.  If  the  scavenging  of 
the  cylinder  were  complete,  and  the  cylinder  were  to 

450 


THE  TWO-STROKE  CYCLE  ENGINE 

receive  a  full  charge  of  fresh  mixture  for  every  stroke, 
the  same  mean  effective  pressure  as  is  obtained  with 
four-stroke  cycle  engines  ought  to  be  realised,  and  at  an 
equal  speed  of  rotation  this  engine  should  give  twice 
the  power  obtainable  from  a  four-stroke  cycle  engine  of 
equal  dimensions.  This  result  was  not  achieved,  and, 
with  the  improvements  in  construction  brought  about 
by  experiment  up  to  1912,  the  output  was  found  to  be 
only  about  fifty  per  cent  more  than  that  of  a  four-stroke 


Dugald  Clerk's  Two-stroke  Cycle  Engine. 

cycle  engine  of  the  same  size,  so  that,  when  the  charging 
cylinder  is  included,  this  engine  has  a  greater  weight 
per  horse-power,  while  the  lowest  rate  of  fuel  consumption 
recorded  was  0-68  Ib.  per  horse-power  per  hour. 

In  1891  Mr  Day  invented  a  two-stroke  cycle  engine 
which  used  the  crank  case  as  a  scavenging  chamber, 
and  a  very  large  number  of  these  engines  have  been 
built  for  industrial  purposes.  The  charge  of  carburetted 
air  is  drawn  through  a  non-return  valve  into  the  crank 
chamber  during  the  upstroke  of  the  piston,  and 

451 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

compressed  to  about  4  Ibs.  pressure  per  square  inch  on 
the  down  stroke.  When  the  piston  approaches  the  bottom 
end  of  its  stroke  the  upper  edge  first  overruns  an  exhaust 
port,  and  almost  immediately  after  uncovers  an  inlet 
port  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  cylinder  and  in  communi- 
cation with  the  crank  chamber;  the  entering  charge, 
being  under  pressure,  assists  in  expelling  the  exhaust 
gases  from  the  cylinder.  On  the  next  upstroke  the 
charge  is  compressed  into  the  combustion  space  of  the 
cylinder,  a  further  charge  simultaneously  entering  the 
crank  case  to  be  compressed  after  the  ignition  for  the 
working  stroke.  To  prevent  the  incoming  charge 
escaping  through  the  exhaust  ports  of  the  cylinder  a 
deflector  is  formed  on  the  top  of  the  piston,  causing  the 
fresh  gas  to  travel  in  an  upward  direction,  thus  avoiding 
as  far  as  possible  escape  of  the  mixture  to  the  atmosphere. 
From  experiments  conducted  in  1910  by  Professor 
Watson  and  Mr  Fleming  it  was  found  that  the  proportion 
of  fresh  gases  which  escaped  unburnt  through  the 
exhaust  ports  diminished  with  increase  of  speed;  at 
600  revolutions  per  minute  about  36  per  cent  of  the 
fresh  charge  was  lost;  at  1,200  revolutions  per  minute 
this  was  reduced  to  20  per  cent,  and  at  1,500  revolutions 
it  was  still  farther  reduced  to  6  per  cent. 

So  much  for  the  early  designs.  With  regard  to 
engines  of  this  type  specially  constructed  for  use  with 
aircraft,  three  designs  call  for  special  mention.  Messrs 
A.  Gobe  and  H.  Diard,  Parisian  engineers,  produced 
an  eight-cylindered  two-stroke  cycle  engine  of  rotary 
design,  the  cylinders  being  co-axial.  Each  pair  of 
opposite  pistons  was  secured  together  by  a  rigid  con- 
necting rod,  connected  to  a  pin  on  a  rotating  crankshaft 
which  was  mounted  eccentrically  to  the  axis  of  rotation 

45* 


THE  TWO-STROKE  CYCLE  ENGINE 

of  the  cylinders.  The  crankshaft  carried  a  pinion 
gearing  with  an  internally  toothed  wheel  on  the  trans- 
mission shaft  which  carried  the  air-screw.  The  com- 
bustible mixture,  emanating  from  a  common  supply 
pipe,  was  led  through  conduits  to  the  front  ends  of  the 
cylinders,  in  which  the  charges  were  compressed  before 
being  transferred  to  the  working  spaces  through  ports 
in  tubular  extensions  carried  by  the  pistons.  These 
extensions  had  also  exhaust  ports,  registering  with 
ports  in  the  cylinder  which  communicated  with  the 
outer  air,  and  the  extensions  slid  over  depending  cylinder 
heads  attached  to  the  crank  case  by  long  studs.  The 
pump  charge  was  compressed  in  one  end  of  each 
cylinder,  and  the  pump  spaces  each  delivered  into  their 
corresponding  adjacent  combustion  spaces.  The  charges 
entered  the  pump  spaces  during  the  suction  period 
through  passages  which  communicated  with  a  central 
stationary  supply  passage  at  one  end  of  the  crank  case, 
communication  being  cut  off  when  the  inlet  orifice  to 
the  passage  passed  out  of  register  with  the  port  in  the 
stationary  member.  The  exhaust  ports  at  the  outer  end 
of  the  combustion  space  opened  just  before  and  closed 
a  little  later  than  the  air  ports,  and  the  incoming  charge 
assisted  in  expelling  the  exhaust  gases  in  a  manner 
similar  to  that  of  the  earlier  types  of  two-stroke  cycle 
engine.  The  accompanying  rough  diagram  assists  in 
showing  the  working  of  this  engine. 

Exhibited  in  the  Paris  Aero  Exhibition  of  1912, 
the  Laviator  two-stroke  cycle  engine,  six-cylindered, 
could  be  operated  either  as  a  radial  or  as  a  rotary  engine, 
all  its  pistons  acting  on  a  single  crank.  Cylinder 
dimensions  of  this  engine  were  3.94  inches  bore  by 
5.12  inches  stroke,  and  a  power  output  of  50  horse- 

453 


A  HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

power  was  obtained  when  working  at  a  rate  of  1,200 
revolutions  per  minute.  Used  as  a  radial  engine,  it 
developed  65  horse-power  at  the  same  rate  of  revolution, 
and,  as  the  total  weight  was  about  198  Ibs.,  the  weight  of 
about  3  Ibs.  per  horse-power  was  attained  in  radial  use. 


The  Gobe  and  Diard  Co-axial  Two-stroke  Engine. 

Stepped  pistons  were  employed,  the  annular  space 
between  the  smaller  or  power  piston  and  the  walls  of 
the  larger  cylinder  being  used  as  a  charging  pump  for 
the  power  cylinder  situated  120  degrees  in  rear  of  it. 
The  charging  cylinders  were  connected  by  short  pipes 

454 


THE  TWO-STROKE  CYCLE  ENGINE 

to  ports  in  the  crank  case  which  communicated  with 
the  hollow  crankshaft  through  which  the  fresh  gas  was 
supplied,  and  once  in  each  revolution  each  port  in  the 
case  registered  with  the  port  in  the  hollow  shaft.  The 
mixture  which  then  entered  the  charging  cylinder  was 
transferred  to  the  corresponding  working  cylinder 
when  the  piston  of  that  cylinder  had  reached  the  end 
of  its  power  stroke,  and  immediately  before  this  the 
exhaust  ports  diametrically  opposite  the  inlet  ports 
were  uncovered;  scavenging  was  thus  assisted  in  the 
usual  way.  The  very  desirable  feature  of  being  entirely 
valveless  was  accomplished  with  this  engine,  which  is 
also  noteworthy  for  exceedingly  compact  design. 

The  Lamplough  six-cylinder  two-stroke  cycle 
rotary,  shown  at  the  Aero  Exhibition  at  Olympia  in 
1911,  had  several  innovations,  including  a  charging 
pump  of  rotary  blower  type.  With  the  six  cylinders, 
six  power  impulses  at  regular  intervals  were  given  on 
each  rotation;  otherwise,  the  cycle  of  operations  was 
carried  out  much  as  in  other  two-stroke  cycle  engines. 
The  pump  supplied  the  mixture  under  slight  pressure 
to  an  inlet  port  in  each  cylinder,  which  was  opened  at 
the  same  time  as  the  exhaust  port,  the  period  of  opening 
being  controlled  by  the  piston.  The  rotary  blower 
sucked  the  mixture  from  the  carburettor  and  delivered 
it  to  a  passage  communicating  with  the  inlet  ports  in 
the  cylinder  walls.  A  mechanically-operated  exhaust 
valve  was  placed  in  the  centre  of  each  cylinder  head, 
and  towards  the  end  of  the  working  stroke  this  valve 
opened,  allowing  part  of  the  burnt  gases  to  escape  to 
the  atmosphere;  the  remainder  was  pushed  out  by  the 
fresh  mixture  going  in  through  the  ports  at  the  bottom 
end  of  the  cylinder.  In  practice,  one  or  other  of  the 
H.A.  455  20 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

cylinders  was  always  taking  fresh  mixture  while  working, 
therefore  the  delivery  from  the  pump  was  continuous 
and  the  mixture  had  not  to  be  stored  under  pressure. 

The  piston  of  this  engine  was  long  enough  to  keep 
the  ports  covered  when  it  was  at  the  top  of  the  stroke, 
and  a  bottom  ring  was  provided  to  prevent  the  mixture 
from  entering  the  crank  case.  In  addition  to  preventing 
leakage,  this  ring  no  doubt  prevented  an  excess  of  oil 
working  up  the  piston  into  the  cylinder.  As  the  cylinder 
fired  with  every  revolution,  the  valve  gear  was  of  the 
simplest  construction,  a  fixed  cam  lifting  each  valve 
as  the  cylinder  came  into  position.  The  spring  of  the 
exhaust  valve  was  not  placed  round  the  stem  in  the 
usual  way,  but  at  the  end  of  a  short  lever,  away  from 
the  heat  of  the  exhaust  gases.  The  cylinders  were  of 
cast  steel,  the  crank  case  of  aluminium,  and  ball- 
bearings were  fitted  to  the  crankshaft,  crank  pins,  and 
the  rotary  blower  pump.  Ignition  was  by  means  of 
a  high-tension  magneto  of  the  two-spark  pattern,  and 
with  a  total  weight  of  300  Ibs.  the  maximum  output 
was  1 02  brake  horse-power,  giving  a  weight  of  just 
under  3  Ibs.  per  horse-power. 

One  of  the  most  successful  of  the  two-stroke  cycle 
engines  was  that  designed  by  Mr  G.  F.  Mort  and  con- 
structed by  the  New  Engine  Company.  With  four 
cylinders  of  3.69  inches  bore  by  4-5  inches  stroke,  and 
running  at  1,250  revolutions  per  minute,  this  engine 
developed  50  brake  horse-power;  the  total  weight  of 
the  engine  was  155  Ibs.,  thus  giving  a  weight  of 
3.1  Ibs.  per  horse-power.  A  scavenging  pump  of  the 
rotary  type  was  employed,  driven  by  means  of  gearing 
from  the  engine  crankshaft,  and  in  order  to  reduce 
weight  to  a  minimum  the  vanes  were  of  aluminium. 

456 


THE  TWO-STROKE  CYCLE  ENGINE 

This  engine  was  tried  on  a  biplane,  and  gave  very 
satisfactory  results. 

American  design  yields  two  apparently  successful 
two-stroke  cycle  aero  engines.  A  rotary  called  the 
Fredericson  engine  was  said  to  give  an  output  of  70 
brake  horse-power  with  five  cylinders  4-5  inches 
diameter  by  4*75  inches  stroke,  running  at  1,000 
revolutions  per  minute.  Another,  the  Roberts  two- 
stroke  cycle  engine,  yielded  100  brake  horse-power  from 
six  cylinders  of  the  stepped  piston  design;  two  car- 
burettors, each  supplying  three  cylinders,  were  fitted 
to  this  engine.  Ignition  was  by  means  of  the  usual 
high-tension  magneto,  gear-driven  from  the  crankshaft, 
and  the  engine,  which  was  water-cooled,  was  of  compact 
design. 

It  may  thus  be  seen  that  the  two-stroke  cycle  type 
got  as  far  as  actual  experiment  in  air  work,  and  that 
with  considerable  success.  So  far,  however,  the  greater 
reliability  of  the  four-stroke  cycle  has  rendered  it 
practically  the  only  aircraft  engine,  and  the  two-stroke 
has  yet  some  way  to  travel  before  it  becomes  a  formidable 
competitor,  in  spite  of  its  admitted  theoretical  and 
questioned  practical  advantages. 


457 


VII 


ENGINES    OF    THE    WAR    PERIOD 

THE  principal  engines  of  British,  French,  and  American 
design  used  in  the  war  period  and  since  are  briefly 
described  under  the  four  distinct  types  of  aero  engine; 
such  notable  examples  as  the  Rolls-Royce,  Sunbeam, 
and  Napier  engines  have  been  given  special  mention, 
as  they  embodied — and  still  embody — all  that  is  best 
in  aero  engine  practice.  So  far,  however,  little  has  been 
said  about  the  development  of  German  aero  engine 
design,  apart  from  the  early  Daimler  and  other  pioneer 
makes. 

At  the  outbreak  of  hostilities  in  1914,  thanks  to 
subsidies  to  contractors  and  prizes  to  aircraft  pilots, 
the  German  aeroplane  industry  was  in  a  comparatively 
flourishing  condition.  There  were  about  twenty-two 
establishments  making  different  types  of  heavier-than- 
air  machines,  monoplane  and  biplane,  engined  for  the 
most  part  with  the  four-cylinder  Argus  or  the  six- 
cylinder  Mercedes  vertical  type  engines,  each  of  these 
being  of  100  horse-power — it  was  not  till  war  brought 
increasing  demands  on  aircraft  that  the  limit  of  power 
began  to  rise.  Contemporary  with  the  Argus  and 
Mercedes  were  the  Austro-Daimler,  Benz,  and  N.A.G., 
in  vertical  design,  while  as  far  as  rotary  types  were 
concerned  there  were  two,  the  Oberursel  and  the 
Stahlhertz;  of  these  the  former  was  by  far  the  most 

458 


ENGINES   OF  THE  WAR  PERIOD 

promising,  and  it  came  to  virtual  monopoly  of  the 
rotary-engined  'plane  as  soon  as  the  war  demand  began. 
It  was  practically  a  copy  of  the  famous  Gnome  rotary, 
and  thus  deserves  little  description. 

Germany,  from  the  outbreak  of  war,  practically, 
concentrated  on  the  development  of  the  Mercedes 
engine;  and  it  is  noteworthy  that,  with  one  exception, 
increase  of  power  corresponding  with  the  increased 
demand  for  power  was  attained  without  increasing  the 
number  of  cylinders.  The  various  models  ranged 
between  75  and  260  horse-power,  the  latter  being  the 
most  recent  production  of  this  type.  The  exception 
to  the  rule  was  the  eight-cylinder  240  horse-power, 
which  was  replaced  by  the  260  horse-power  six-cylinder 
model,  the  latter  being  more  reliable  and  but  very 
slightly  heavier.  Of  the  other  engines,  the  120  horse- 
power Argus  and  the  160  and  225  horse-power  Benz 
were  the  most  used,  the  Oberursel  being  very  largely 
discarded  after  the  Fokker  monoplane  had  had  its  day, 
and  the  N.A.G.  and  Austro-Daimler  also  falling  to 
comparative  disuse.  It  may  be  said  that  the  develop- 
ment of  the  Mercedes  engine  contributed  very  largely 
to  such  success  as  was  achieved  in  the  war  period  by 
German  aircraft,  and,  in  developing  the  engine,  the 
builders  were  careful  to  make  alterations  in  such  a 
way  as  to  effect  the  least  possible  change  in  the  design 
of  aeroplane  to  which  they  were  to  be  fitted.  Thus 
the  engine  base  of  the  175  horse-power  model  coincided 
precisely  with  that  of  the  150  horse-power  model,  and 
the  200  and  240  horse-power  models  retained  the  same 
base  dimensions.  It  was  estimated,  in  1918,  that  well 
over  eighty  per  cent  of  German  aircraft  was  engined 
with  the  Mercedes  type. 

459 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

In  design  and  construction,  there  was  nothing 
abnormal  about  the  Mercedes  engine,  the  keynote 
throughout  being  extreme  reliability  and  such  simpli- 
fication of  design  as  would  permit  of  mass  production 
in  different  factories.  Even  before  the  war,  the  long 
list  of  records  set  up  by  this  engine  formed  practical 
application  of  the  wisdom  of  this  policy;  Bonn's  flight 
of  24  hours  10  minutes,  accomplished  on  July  loth  and 
nth,  1914,  is  an  instance  of  this — the  flight  was 
accomplished  on  an  Albatross  biplane  with  a  75  horse- 
power Mercedes  engine.  The  radial  type,  instanced 
in  other  countries  by  the  Salmson  and  Anzani  makes, 
was  not  developed  in  Germany;  two  radial  engines 
were  made  in  that  country  before  the  war,  but  the 
Germans  seemed  to  lose  faith  in  the  type  under  war 
conditions,  or  it  may  have  been  that  insistence  on 
standardisation  ruled  out  all  but  the  proved  examples 
of  engine. 

Details  of  one  of  the  middle  sizes  of  Mercedes 
motor,  the  176  horse-power  type,  apply  very  generally 
to  the  whole  range;  this  size  was  in  use  up  to  and 
beyond  the  conclusion  of  hostilities,  and  it  may  still  be 
regarded  as  characteristic  of  modern  (1920)  German 
practice.  The  engine  is  of  the  fixed  vertical  type,  has 
six  cylinders  in  line,  not  off-set,  and  is  water-cooled. 
The  cam  shaft  is  carried  in  a  special  bronze  casing, 
seated  on  the  immediate  top  of  the  cylinders,  and  a 
vertical  shaft  is  interposed  between  crankshaft  and  cam- 
shaft, the  latter  being  driven  by  bevel  gearing. 

On  this  vertical  connecting-shaft  the  water  pump 
is  located,  serving  to  steady  the  motion  of  the  shaft. 
Extending  immediately  below  the  camshaft  is  another 
vertical  shaft,  driven  by  bevel  gears  from  the  crank-shaft, 

460 


ENGINES  OF  THE  WAR  PERIOD 

and  terminating  in  a  worm  which  drives  the 
multiple  piston  oil  pumps. 

The  cylinders  are  made  from  steel  forgings,  as  are 
the  valve  chamber  elbows,  which  are  machined  all 
over  and  welded  together.  A  jacket  of  light  steel  is 
welded  over  the  valve  elbows  and  attached  to  a  flange 
on  the  cylinders,  forming  a  water-cooling  space  with  a 
section  of  about  T7^  of  an  inch.  The  cylinder  bore  is 
5.5  inches,  and  the  stroke  6.29  inches.  The  cylinders 
are  attached  to  the  crank  case  by  means  of  dogs  and 
long  through  bolts,  which  have  shoulders  near  their 
lower  ends  and  are  bolted  to  the  lower  half  of  the  crank 
chamber.  A  very  light  and  rigid  structure  is  thus 
obtained,  and  the  method  of  construction  won  the 
flattery  of  imitation  by  makers  of  other  nationality. 

The  cooling  system  for  the  cylinders  is  extremely 
efficient.  After  leaving  the  water  pump,  the  water 
enters  the  top  of  the  front  cylinders  and  passes 
successively  through  each  of  the  six  cylinders  of  the 
row;  short  tubes,  welded  to  the  tops  of  the  cylinders, 
serve  as  connecting  links  in  the  system.  The  Panhard 
car  engines  for  years  were  fitted  with  a  similar  cooling 
system,  and  the  White  and  Poppe  lorry  engines  were 
also  similarly  fitted;  the  system  gives  excellent  cooling 
effect  where  it  is  most  needed,  round  the  valve  chambers 
and  the  cylinder  heads. 

The  pistons  are  built  up  from  two  pieces;  a  dropped 
forged  steel  piston  head,  from  which  depend  the  piston 
pin  bosses,  is  combined  with  a  cast-iron  skirt,  into  which 
the  steel  head  is  screwed.  Four  rings  are  fitted,  three 
at  the  upper  and  one  at  the  lower  end  of  the  piston 
skirt,  and  two  lubricating  oil  grooves  are  cut  in  the 
skirt,  in  addition  to  the  ring  grooves.  Two  small  rivets 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

retain  the  steel  head  on  the  piston  skirt  after  it  has  been 
screwed  into  position,  and  it  is  also  welded  at  two  points. 
The  coefficient  of  friction  between  the  cast-iron  and 
steel  is  considerably  less  than  that  which  would  exist 
between  two  steel  parts,  and  there  is  less  tendency  for 
the  skirt  to  score  the  cylinder  walls  than  would  be  the 
case  if  all  steel  were  used — so  noticeable  is  this  that 
many  makers,  after  giving  steel  pistons  a  trial,  discarded 
them  in  favour  of  cast-iron;  the  Gnome  is  an  example 
of  this,  being  originally  fitted  with  a  steel  piston  carrying 
a  brass  ring,  discarded  in  favour  of  a  cast-iron  piston 
with  a  percentage  of  steel  in  the  metal  mixture.  In  the 
Le  Rhone  engine  the  difficulty  is  overcome  by  a  cast- 
iron  liner  to  the  cylinders. 

The  piston  pin  of  the  Mercedes  is  of  chrome  nickel 
steel,  and  is  retained  in  the  piston  by  means  of  a  set 
screw  and  cotter  pin.  The  connecting  rods,  of  I  section, 
are  very  short  and  rigid,  carrying  floating  bronze 
bushes  which  fit  the  piston  pins  at  the  small  end,  and 
carrying  an  oil  tube  on  each  for  conveying  oil  from  the 
crank  pin  to  the  piston  pin. 

The  crankshaft  is  .of  chrome  nickel  steel,  carried 
on  seven  bearings.  Holes  are  drilled  through  each  of 
the  crank  pins  and  main  bearings,  for  half  the  diameter 
of  the  shaft,  and  these  are  plugged  with  pressed  brass 
studs.  Small  holes,  drilled  through  the  crank  cheeks, 
serve  to  convey  lubricant  from  the  main  bearings  to 
the  crank  pins.  The  propeller  thrust  is  taken  by  a 
simple  ball  thrust  bearing  at  the  propeller  end  of  the 
crankshaft,  this  thrust  bearing  being  seated  in  a  steel 
retainer  which  is  clamped  between  the  two  halves  of  the 
crank  case.  At  the  forward  end  of  the  crankshaft  there 
is  mounted  a  master  bevel  gear  on  six  splines;  this 

462 


ENGINES  OF  THE  WAR  PERIOD 

bevel  floats  on  the  splines  against  a  ball  thrust  bearing, 
and,  in  turn,  the  thrust  is  taken  by  the  crank  case  cover. 
A  stuffing  box  prevents  the  loss  of  lubricant  out  of  the 
front  end  of  the  crank  chamber,  and'  an  oil  thrower  ring 
serves  a  similar  purpose  at  the  propeller  end  of  the 
crank  chamber. 

With  a  motor  speed  of  1,450  r.p.m.,  the  vertical 
shaft  at  the  forward  end  of  the  motor  turns  at  2,175 
r.p.m.,  this  being  the  speed  of  the  two  magnetos  and 
the  water  pump.  The  lower  vertical  shaft  bevel  gear 
and  the  magneto  driving  gear  are  made  integral  with 
the  vertical  driving  shaft,  which  is  carried  in  plain 
bearings  in  an  aluminium  housing.  This  housing  is 
clamped  to  the  upper  half  of  the  crank  case  by  means 
of  three  studs.  The  cam-shaft  carries  eighteen  cams, 
these  being  the  inlet  and  exhaust  cams,  and  a  set  of 
half  compression  cams  which  are  formed  with  the 
exhaust  cams  and  are  put  into  action  when  required  by 
means  of  a  lever  at  the  forward  end  of  the  cam-shaft. 
The  cam-shaft  is  hollow,  and  serves  as  a  channel  for 
the  conveyance  of  lubricating  oil  to  each  of  the  cam- 
shaft bearings.  At  the  forward  end  of  this  shaft  there 
is  also  mounted  an  air  pump  for  maintaining  pressure 
on  the  fuel  supply  tank,  and  a  bevel  gear  tachometer 
drive. 

Lubrication  of  the  engine  is  carried  out  by  a  full 
pressure  system.  The  oil  is  pumped  through  a  single 
manifold,  with  seven  branches  to  the  crankshaft  main 
bearings,  and  then  in  turn  through  the  hollow  crankshaft 
to  the  connecting-rod  big  ends  and  thence  through 
small  tubes,  already  noted,  to  the  small  end  bearings. 
The  oil  pump  has  four  pistons  and  two  double  valves 
driven  from  a  single  eccentric  shaft  on  which  are  mounted 

463 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

four  eccentrics.  The  pump  is  continuously  submerged 
in  oil;  in  order  to  avoid  great  variations  in  pressure 
in  the  oil  lines  there  is  a  piston  operated  pressure 
regulator,  cut  in  between  the  pump  and  the  oil  lines. 
The  two  small  pistons  of  the  pump  take  fresh  oil  from 
a  tank  located  in  the  fuselage  of  the  machine;  one 
of  these  delivers  oil  to  the  cam  shaft,  and  one  delivers 
to  the  crankshaft;  this  fresh  oil  mixes  with  the  used 
oil,  returns  to  the  base,  and  back  to  the  main  large  oil 
pump  cylinders.  By  means  of  these  small  pump  pistons 
a  constant  quantity  of  oil  is  kept  in  the  motor,  and  the 
oil  is  continually  being  freshened  by  means  of  the  new 
oil  coming  in.  All  the  oil  pipes  are  very  securely 
fastened  to  the  lower  half  of  the  crank  case,  and  some 
cooling  of  the  oil  is  effected  by  air  passing  through 
channels  cast  in  the  crank  case  on  its  way  to  the 
carburettor. 

A  light  steel  manifold  serves  to  connect  the  exhaust 
ports  of  the  cylinders  to  the  main  exhaust  pipe,  which  is 
inclined  about  25  degrees  from  vertical  and  is  arranged 
to  give  on  to  the  atmosphere  just  over  the  top  of  the 
upper  wing  of  the  aeroplane. 

As  regards  carburation,  an  automatic  air  valve 
surrounds  the  throat  of  the  carburettor,  maintaining 
normal  composition  of  mixture.  A  small  jet  is  fitted 
for  starting  and  running  without  load.  The  channels 
cast  in  the  crank  chamber,  already  alluded  to  in  connection 
with  oil-cooling,  serve  to  warm  the  air  before  it  reaches 
the  carburettor,  of  which  the  body  is  water-jacketed. 

Ignition  of  the  engine  is  by  means  of  two  Bosch 
Z  H  6  magnetos,  driven  at  a  speed  of  2,175  revolutions 
per  minute  when  the  engine  is  running  at  its  normal 
speed  of  1,450  revolutions.  The  maximum  advance 

464 


ENGINES  OF  THE  WAR  PERIOD 

of  spark  is  12  mm.,  or  32  degrees  before  the  top  dead 
centre,  and  the  firing  order  of  the  cylinders  is  I,  j,  3, 
6,  2,  4. 

The  radiator  fitted  to  this  engine,  together  with 
the  water-jackets,  has  a  capacity  of  25  litres  of  water, 
it  is  rectangular  in  shape,  and  is  normally  tilted  at  an 
angle  of  30  degrees  from  vertical.  Its  weight  is  26  kg., 
and  it  offers  but  slight  head  resistance  in  flight. 

The  radial  type  of  engine,  neglected  altogether  in 
Germany,  was  brought  to  a  very  high  state  of  prefection 
at  the  end  of  the  War  period  by  British  makers.  Two 
makes,  the  Cosmos  Engineering  Company's  *  Jupiter' 
and  *  Lucifer,'  and  the  A.B.C.  '  Wasp  II  '  and  '  Dragon 
Fly  i  A  '  require  special  mention  for  their  light  weight 
and  reliability  on  trials. 

The  Cosmos  *  Jupiter  '  was — for  it  is  no  longer 
being  made — a  450  horse-power  nine-cylinder  radial 
engine,  air-cooled,  with  the  cylinders  set  in  one  single 
row;  it  was  made  both  geared  to  reduce  the  propeller 
revolutions  relatively  to  the  crankshaft  revolutions,  and 
ungeared;  the  normal  power  of  the  geared  type  was 
450  horse-power,  and  the  total  weight  of  the  engine, 
including  carburettors,  magnetos,  etc.,  was  only  757 
Ibs.;  the  engine  speed  was  1,850  revolutions  per 
minute,  and  the  propeller  revolutions  were  reduced 
by  the  gearing  to  1,200.  Fitted  to  a  *  Bristol  Badger  ' 
aeroplane,  the  total  weight  was  2,800  Ibs,  including 
pilot,  passenger,  two  machine-guns,  and  full  military 
load;  at  7,000  feet  the  registered  speed,  with  corrections 
for  density,  was  137  miles  per  hour;  in  climbing,  the 
first  2,000  feet  was  accomplished  in  i  minute  4  seconds; 
4,000  feet  was  reached  in  2  minutes  10  seconds;  6,000 
feet  was  reached  in  3  minutes  33  seconds,  and  7,000 

465 


A  HISTORY  OF  AERONAUTICS 

feet  in  4  minutes  15  seconds.  It  was  intended  to 
modify  the  plane  design  and  fit  a  new  propeller,  in 
order  to  attain  even  better  results,  but,  if  trials  were 
made  with  these  modifications,  the  results  are  not 
obtainable. 

The  Cosmos  '  Lucifer  '  was  a  three-cylinder  radial 
type  engine  of  100  horse-power,  inverted  Y  design, 
made  on  the  simplest  possible  principles  with  a  view 
to  quantity  production  and  extreme  reliability.  The 
rated  100  horse-power  was  attained  at  1,600  revolutions 
per  minute,  and  the  cylinder  dimensions  were  5.75 
bore  by  6-25  inches  stroke.  The  cylinders  were  of 
aluminium  and  steel  mixture,  with  aluminium  heads; 
overhead  valves,  operated  by  push  rods  on  the  front 
side  of  the  cylinders,  were  fitted,  and  a  simple  reducing 
gear  ran  them  at  half  engine  speed.  The  crank  case 
was  a  circular  aluminium  casting,  the  engine  being 
attached  to  the  fuselage  of  the  aeroplane  by  a  circular 
flange  situated  at  the  back  of  the  case;  propeller  shaft 
and  crankshaft  were  integral/  Dual  ignition  was  provided, 
the  generator  and  distributors  being  driven  off  the 
back  end  of  the  engine  and  the  distributors  being 
easily  accessible.  Lubrication  was  by  means  of  two 
pumps,  one  scavenging  and  one  suction,  oil  being  fed 
under  pressure  from  the  crankshaft.  A  single  carburettor 
fed  all  three  cylinders,  the  branch  pipe  from  the 
carburettor  to  the  circular  ring  being  provided  with  an 
exhaust  heater.  The  total  weight  of  the  engine,  '  all 
on,'  was  280  Ibs. 

The  A.B.C.  '  Wasp  II,'  made  by  Walton  Motors, 
Limited,  is  a  seven-cylinder  radial,  air-cooled  engine, 
the  cylinders  having  a  bore  of  4.75  inches  and  stroke 
6.25  inches.  The  normal  brake  horse-power  at  1,650 

466 


'  Dragonfly  '  1  A. 


^ 


'Dragonfly'  piston  assembly. 


Dragonfly  '  cylinder. 


To  face  page  46 


ENGINES  OF  THE  WAR  PERIOD 

revolutions  is  160,  and  the  maximum  200  at  a  speed  of 
1,850  revolutions  per  minute.  Lubrication  is  by  means 
of  two  rotary  pumps,  one  feeding  through  the  hollow 
crankshaft  to  the  crank  pin,  giving  centrifugal  feed  to 
big  end  and  thence  splash  oiling,  and  one  feeding  to  the 
nose  of  the  engine,  dropping  on  to  the  cams  and  forming 
a  permanent  sump  for  the  gears  on  the  bottom  of  the 
engine  nose.  Two  carburettors  are  fitted,  and  two  two- 
spark  magnetos,  running  at  one  and  three-quarters 
engine  speed.  The  total  weight  of  this  engine  is  350 
Ibs.,  or  1.75  Ibs.  per  horse-power.  Oil  consumption 
at  1,850  revolutions  is  -03  pints  per  horse-power  per 
hour,  and  petrol  consumption  is  -56  pints  per  horse- 
power per  hour.  The  engine  thus  shows  as  very 
economical  in  consumption,  as  well  as  very  light  in 
weight. 

The  A.B.C.  *  Dragon  Fly  lA  '  is  a  nine-cylinder 
radial  engine  having  one  overhead  inlet  and  two  over- 
head exhaust  valves  per  cylinder.  The  cylinder 
dimensions  are  5-5  inches  bore  by  6*5  inches  stroke, 
and  the  normal  rate  of  speed,  1,650  revolutions  per 
minute,  gives  340  horse-power.  The  oiling  is  by 
means  of  two  pumps,  the  system  being  practically 
identical  with  that  of  the  *  Wasp  II.'  Oil  consumption 
is  .021  pints  per  brake  horse-power  per  hour,  and 
petrol  consumption  .56  pints — the  same  as  that  of  the 
'  Wasp  II.'  The  weight  of  the  complete  engine, 
including  propeller  boss,  is  600  Ibs.,  or  1-765  Ibs. 
per  horse-power. 

These  A.B.C.  radials  have  proved  highly  satisfactory 
on  tests,  and  their  extreme  simplicity  of  design  and 
reliability  commend  them  as  engineering  products  and 
at  the  same  time  demonstrate  the  value,  for  aero  work, 

467 


A  HISTORY   OF  AERONAUTICS 

of  the  air-cooled  radial  design — when  this  latter  is 
accompanied  by  sound  workmanship.  These  and  the 
Cosmos  engines  represent  the  minimum  of  weight  per 
horse-power  yet  attained,  together  with  a  practicable 
degree  of  reliability,  in  radial  and  probably  any  aero 
engine  design. 


468 


APPENDIX  A 


GENERAL  MENSIER's  REPORT  ON  THE  TRIALS  OF  CLEMENT 
ADER'S  *  AVION.* 


PARIS,   October  21,   1897. 

Report  on  the  trials  of  M.  Clement  Ader's  aviation 
apparatus. 

M.  Ader  having  notified  the  Minister  of  War  by 
letter,  July  21,  1897,  that  the  Apparatus  of  Aviation 
which  he  had  agreed  to  build  under  the  conditions  set 
forth  in  the  convention  of  July  24th,  1894,  was  ready, 
and  therefore  requesting  that  trials  be  undertaken 
before  a  Committee  appointed  for  this  purpose  as  per 
the  decision  of  August  4th,  the  Committee  was  appointed 
as  follows  : — 

Division  General  Mensier,  Chairman;  Division 
General  Delambre,  Inspector  General  of  the  Permanent 
Works  of  Coast  Defence,  Member  of  the  Technical 
Committee  of  the  Engineering  Corps;  Colonel  Laussedat, 
Director  of  the  Conservatoire  des  Arts  et  Metiers; 
Sarrau,  Member  of  the  Institute,  Professor  of  Mechanical 
Engineering  at  the  Polytechnic  School ;  Leaute,  Member 
of  the  Institute,  Professor  of  Mechanical  Engineering 
at  the  Polytechnique  School. 

Colonel  Laussedat  gave  notice  at  once  that  his 
health  and  work  as  Director  of  the  Conservatoire  des 
Arts  et  Metiers  did  not  permit  him  to  be  a  member  of 

469 


APPENDICES 

the  Committee;  the  Minister  therefore  accepted  his 
resignation  on  September  24th,  and  decided  not  to 
replace  him. 

Later  on,  however,  on  the  request  of  the  Chairman 
of  the  Committee,  the  Minister  appointed  a  new  member, 
General  Grillon,  commanding  the  Engineer  Corps  of 
the  Military  Government  of  Paris. 

To  carry  on  the  trials  which  were  to  take  place  at 
the  camp  of  Satory,  the  Minister  ordered  the  Governor 
of  the  Military  Forces  of  Paris  to  requisition  from  the 
Engineer  Corps,  on  the  request  of  the  Chairman  of 
the  Committee,  the  men  necessary  to  prepare  the 
grounds  at  Satory. 

After  an  inspection  made  on  the  i6th  an  aerodrome 
was  chosen.  M.  Ader's  idea  was  to  have  it  of  circular 
shape  with  a  width  of  40  metres  and  an  average  diameter 
of  450  metres.  The  preliminary  work,  laying  out  the 
grounds,  interior  and  exterior  circumference,  etc.,  was 
finished  at  the  end  of  August;  the  work  of  smoothing 
off  the  grounds  began  September  ist  with  forty-five  men 
and  two  rollers,  and  was  finished  on  the  day  of  the  first 
tests,  October  I2th. 

The  first  meeting  of  the  Committee  was  held 
August  1 8th  in  M.  Ader's  workshop;  the  object  being 
to  demonstrate  the  machine  to  the  Committee  and  give 
all  the  information  possible  on  the  tests  that  were  to 
be  held.  After  a  careful  examination  and  after  having 
heard  all  the  explanations  by  the  inventor  which  were 
deemed  useful  and  necessary,  the  Committee  decided 
that  the  apparatus  seemed  to  be  built  with  a  perfect 
understanding  of  the  purpose  to  be  fulfilled  as  far  as 
one  could  judge  from  a  study  of  the  apparatus  at  rest; 
they  therefore  authorised  M.  Ader  to  take  the  machine 

470 


APPENDICES 

apart  and  carry  it  to  the  camp  at  Satory  so  as  to  proceed 
with  the  trials. 

By  letter  of  August  1 9th  the  Chairman  made  report 
to  the  Minister  of  the  findings  of  the  Committee. 

The  work  on  the  grounds  having  taken  longer  than 
was  anticipated,  the  Chairman  took  advantage  of  this 
delay  to  call  the  Committee  together  for  a  second 
meeting,  during  which  M.  Ader  was  to  run  the  two 
propulsive  screws  situated  at  the  forward  end  of  the 
apparatus. 

The  meeting  was  held  October  2nd.  It  gave  the 
Committee  an  opportunity  to  appreciate  the  motive 
power  in  all  its  details;  firebox,  boiler,  engine,  under 
perfect  control,  absolute  condensation,  automatic  fuel 
and  feed  of  the  liquid  to  be  vaporised,  automatic  lubri- 
cation and  scavenging;  everything,  in  a  word,  seemed 
well  designed  and  executed. 

The  weights  in  comparison  with  the  power  of  the 
engine  realised  a  considerable  advance  over  anything 
made  to  date,  since  the  two  engines  weighed  together 
realised  42  kg.,  the  firebox  and  boiler  60  kg.,  the 
condenser  1 5  kg.,  or  a  total  of  1 1 7  kg.  for  approximately 
40  horse-power  or  a  little  less  than  3  kg.  per  horse-power. 

One  of  the  members  summed  up  the  general  opinion 
by  saying :  *  Whatever  may  be  the  result  from  an  aviation 
point  of  view,  a  result  which  could  not  be  foreseen  for 
the  moment,  it  was  nevertheless  proven  that  from  a 
mechanical  point  of  view  M.  Ader's  apparatus  was  of 
the  greatest  interest  and  real  ingeniosity.  He  expressed 
a  hope  that  in  any  case  the  machine  would  not  be  lost 
to  science/ 

The  second  experiment  in  the  workshop  was  made 
in  the  presence  of  the  Chairman,  the  purpose  being  to 
H.A.  471  2H 


APPENDICES 

demonstrate  that  the  wings,  having  a  spread  of  17 
metres,  were  sufficiently  strong  to  support  the  weight  of 
the  apparatus.  With  this  object  in  view,  14  sliding 
supports  were  placed  under  each  one  of  these,  represen- 
ting imperfectly  the  manner  in  which  the  wings  would 
support  the  machine  in  the  air;  by  gradually  raising 
the  supports  with  the  slides,  the  wheels  on  which  the 
machine  rested  were  lifted  from  the  ground.  It  was 
evident  at  that  time  that  the  members  composing  the 
skeleton  of  the  wings  supported  the  apparatus,  and  it 
was  quite  evident  that  when  the  wings  were  supported 
by  the  air  on  every  point  of  their  surface,  the  stress 
would  be  better  equalised  than  when  resting  on  a  few 
supports,  and  therefore  the  resistance  to  breakage 
would  be  considerably  greater. 

After  this  last  test,  the  work  on  the  ground  being 
practically  finished,  the  machine  was  transported  to 
Satory,  assembled  and  again  made  ready  for  trial. 

At  first  M.  Ader  was  to  manoeuvre  the  machine 
on  the  ground  at  a  moderate  speed,  then  increase  this 
until  it  was  possible  to  judge  whether  there  was  a 
tendency  for  the  machine  to  rise;  and  it  was  only  after 
M.  Ader  had  acquired  sufficient  practice  that  a  meeting 
of  the  Committee  was  to  be  called  to  be  present  at  the 
first  part  of  the  trials;  namely,  volutions  of  the  apparatus 
on  the  ground. 

The  first  test  took  place  on  Tuesday,  October  I2th, 
in  the  presence  of  the  Chairman  of  the  Committee.  It 
had  rained  a  good  deal  during  the  night  and  the  clay 
track  would  have  offered  considerable  resistance  to  the 
rolling  of  the  machine;  furthermore,  a  moderate  wind 
was  blowing  from  the  south-west,  too  strong  during 
the  early  part  of  the  afternoon  to  allow  of  any  trials. 

472 


APPENDICES 

Toward  sunset,  however,  the  wind  having  weakened, 
M.  Ader  decided  to  make  his  first  trial;  the  machine 
was  taken  out  of  its  hangar,  the  wings  were  mounted 
and  steam  raised.  M.  Ader  in  his  seat  had,  on  each 
side  of  him,  one  man  to  the  right  and  one  to  the  left, 
whose  duty  was  to  rectify  the  direction  of  the  apparatus 
in  the  event  that  the  action  of  the  rear  wheel  as  a  rudder 
would  not  be  sufficient  to  hold  the  machine  in  a  straight 
course. 

At  5.25  p.m.  the  machine  was  started,  at  first  slowly 
and  then  at  an  increased  speed;  after  250  or  300  metres, 
the  two  men  who  were  being  dragged  by  the  apparatus 
were  exhausted  and  forced  to  fall  flat  on  the  ground  in 
order  to  allow  the  wings  to  pass  over  them,  and  the  trip 
around  the  track  was  completed,  a  total  of  1,400  metres, 
without  incident,  at  a  fair  speed,  which  could  be  estimated 
to  be  from  300  to  400  metres  per  minute.  Notwith- 
standing M.  Ader's  inexperience,  this  being  the  first 
time  that  he  had  run  his  apparatus,  he  followed  approxi- 
mately the  chalk  line  which  marked  the  centre  of  the 
track  and  he  stopped  at  the  exact  point  from  which  he 
started. 

The  marks  of  the  wheels  on  the  ground,  which  was 
rather  soft,  did  not  show  up  very  much,  and  it  was  clear 
that  a  part  of  the  weight  of  the  apparatus  had  been 
supported  by  the  wings,  though  the  speed  was  only 
about  one-third  of  what  the  machine  could  do  had 
M.  Ader  used  all  its  motive  power;  he  was  running 
at  a  pressure  of  from  3  to  4  atmospheres,  when  he 
could  have  used  10  to  12. 

This  first  trial,  so  fortunately  accomplished,  was  of 
great  importance;  it  was  the  first  time  that  a  com- 
paratively heavy  vehicle  (nearly  400  kg.,  including  the 

473 


APPENDICES 

weight  of  the  operator,  fuel,  and  water)  had  been  set 
in  motion  by  a  tractive  apparatus,  using  the  air  solely 
as  a  propelling  medium.  The  favourable  report  turned 
in  by  the  Committee  after  the  meeting  of  October  2nd 
was  found  justified  by  the  results  demonstrated  on  the 
grounds,  and  the  first  problem  of  aviation,  namely,  the 
creation  of  efficient  motive  power,  could  be  considered 
as  solved,  since  the  propulsion  of  the  apparatus  in  the 
air  would  be  a  great  deal  easier  than  the  traction  on  the 
ground,  provided  that  the  second  part  of  the  problem, 
the  sustaining  of  the  machine  in  the  air,  would  be  realised. 

The  next  day,  Wednesday  the  I3th,  no  further 
trials  were  made  on  account  of  the  rain  and  wind. 

On  Thursday  the  I4th  the  Chairman  requested 
that  General  Grillon,  who  had  just  been  appointed  a 
member  of  the  Committee,  accompany  him  so  as  to 
have  a  second  witness. 

The  weather  was  fine,  but  a  fairly  strong,  gusty 
wind  was  blowing  from  the  south.  M.  Ader  explained 
to  the  two  members  of  the  Committee  the  danger  of 
these  gusts,  since  at  two  points  of  the  circumference 
the  wind  would  strike  him  sideways.  The  wind  was 
blowing  in  the  direction  A  B,  the  apparatus  starting  from 
C,  and  running  in  the  direction  shown  by  the  arrow. 
The  first  dangerous  spot  would  be  at  B.  The  apparatus 
had  been  kept  in  readiness  in  the  event  of  the  wind 
dying  down.  Toward  sunset  the  wind  seemed  to  die 
down,  as  it  had  done  on  the  evening  of  the  I2th. 
M.  Ader  hesitated,  which,  unfortunately,  further  events 
only  justified,  but  decided  to  make  a  new  trial. 

At  the  start,  which  took  place  at  5.15  p.m.,  the 
apparatus,  having  the  wind  in  the  rear,  seemed  to  run 
at  a  fairly  regular  speed;  it  was,  nevertheless,  easy  to 

474 


APPENDICES 

note  from  the  marks  of  the  wheels  on  the  ground  that 
the  rear  part  of  the  apparatus  had  been  lifted  and  that 
the  rear  wheel,  being  the  rudder,  had  not  been  in  constant 
contact  with  the  ground.  When  the  machine  came  to 
the  neighbourhood  of  B,  the  two  members  of  the 
Committee  saw  the  machine  swerve  suddenly  out  of  the 
track  in  a  semicircle,  lean  over  to  the  right  and  finally 
stop.  They  immediately  proceeded  to  the  point  where 
the  accident  had  taken  place  and  endeavoured  to  find 
an  explanation  for  the  same.  The  Chairman  finally 
decided  as  follows: — 

M.  Ader  was  the  victim  of  a  gust  of  wind  which  he 
had  feared  as  he  explained  before  starting  out;  feeling 
himself  thrown  out  of  his  course,  he  tried  to  use  the 
rudder  energetically,  but  at  that  time  the  rear  wheel 
was  not  in  contact  with  the  ground,  and  therefore  did 
not  perform  its  function;  the  canvas  rudder,  which  had 
as  its  purpose  the  manoeuvring  of  the  machine  in  the 
air,  did  not  have  sufficient  action  on  the  ground.  It 
would  have  been  possible  without  any  doubt  to  react 
by  using  the  propellers  at  unequal  speed,  but  M.  Ader, 
being  still  inexperienced,  had  not  thought  of  this. 
Furthermore,  he  was  thrown  out  of  his  course  so  quickly 
that  he  decided,  in  order  to  avoid  a  more  serious  accident, 
to  stop  both  engines.  This  sudden  stop  produced  the 
half-circle  already  described  and  the  fall  of  the  machine 
on  its  side. 

The  damage  to  the  machine  was  serious;  consisting 
at  first  sight  of  the  rupture  of  both  propellers,  the  rear 
left  wheel  and  the  bending  of  the  left  wing  tip.  It  will 
only  be  possible  to  determine  after  the  machine  is  taken 
apart  whether  the  engine,  and  more  particularly  the 
organs  of  transmission,  have  been  put  out  of  line. 

475 


APPENDICES 

Whatever  the  damage  may  be,  though  comparatively 
easy  to  repair,  it  will  take  a  certain  amount  of  time,  and 
taking  into  consideration  the  time  of  year  it  is  evident 
that  the  tests  will  have  to  be  adjourned  for  the  present. 

As  has  been  said  in  the  above  report,  the  tests, 
though  prematurely  interrupted,  have  shown  results  of 
great  importance,  and  though  the  final  results  are  hard 
to  foresee,  it  would  seem  advisable  to  continue  the  trials. 
By  waiting  for  the  return  of  spring  there  will  be  plenty 
of  time  to  finish  the  tests  and  it  will  not  be  necessary 
to  rush  matters,  which  was  a  partial  cause  of  the  accident. 
The  Chairman  of  the  Committee  personally  has  but 
one  hope,  and  that  is  that  a  decision  be  reached 

accordingly.  TV  •  •      r-          i 

Division  General, 

Chairman  of  the  Committee, 

MENSIER. 
BOULOGNE-SUR-SEINE,  October  list,  1897. 

Annex  to  the  Report  of  October  list. 

General  Grillon,  who  was  present  at  the  trials  of  the 
1 4th,  and  who  saw  the  report  relative  to  what  happened 
during  that  day,  made  the  following  observations  in 
writing,  which  are  reproduced  herewith  in  quotation 
marks.  The  Chairman  of  the  Committee  does  not 
agree  with  General  Grillon  and  he  answers  these 
observations  paragraph  by  paragraph. 

I.  '  If  the  rear  wheel  (there  is  only  one  of  these) 
left  but  intermittent  tracks  on  the  ground,  does  that 
prove  that  the  machine  has  a  tendency  to  rise  when 
running  at  a  certain  speed  ?  ' 

Answer. — This  does  not  prove  anything  in  any 
way,  and  I  was  very  careful  not  to  mention  this  in  my 

476 


APPENDICES 

report,  this  point  being  exactly  what  was  needed  and 
that  was  not  demonstrated  during  the  two  tests  made 
on  the  grounds. 

*  Does  not  this  unequal  pressure  of  the  two  pair  of 
wheels  on  the  ground  show  that  the  centre  of  gravity 
of  the  apparatus  is  placed  too  far  forward  and  that 
under  the  impulse  of  the  propellers  the  machine  has  a 
tendency  to  tilt  forward,  due  to  the  resistance  of  the 
air  ?  ' 

Answer. — The  tendency  of  the  apparatus  to  rise 
from  the  rear  when  it  was  running  with  the  wind  seemed 
to  be  brought  about  by  the  effects  of  the  wind  on  the 
huge  wings,  having  a  spread  of  17  metres,  and  I  believe 
that  when  the  machine  would  have  faced  the  wind  the 
front  wheels  would  have  been  lifted. 

During  the  trials  of  October  I2th,  when  a  complete 
circuit  of  the  track  was  accomplished  without  incidents, 
as  I  and  Lieut.  Binet  witnessed,  there  was  practically 
no  wind.  I  was  therefore  unable  to  verify  whether 
during  this  circuit  the  two  front  wheels  or  the  rear 
wheel  were  in  constant  contact  with  the  ground, 
because  when  the  trial  was  over  it  was  dark  (it  was  5.30) 
and  the  next  day  it  was  impossible  to  see  anything 
because  it  had  rained  during  the  night  and  during 
Wednesday  morning.  But  what  would  prove  that  the 
rear  wheel  was  in  contact  with  the  ground  at  all  times 
is  the  fact  that  M.  Ader,  though  inexperienced,  did  not 
swerve  from  the  circular  track,  which  would  prove 
that  he  steered  pretty  well  with  his  rear  wheel — this  he 
could  not  have  done  if  he  had  been  in  the  air. 

In  the  tests  of  the  I2th,  the  speed  was  at  least  as 
great  as  on  the  I4th. 

2.  '  It  would  seem  to  me  that  if  M.  Ader  thought 

477 


APPENDICES 

that  his  rear  wheels  were  off  the  ground  he  should  have 
used  his  canvas  rudder  in  order  to  regain  his  proper 
course;  this  was  the  best  way  of  causing  the  machine 
to  rotate,  since  it  would  have  given  an  angular  motion 
to  the  front  axle.' 

Answer. — I  state  in  my  report  that  the  canvas 
rudder  whose  object  was  the  manoeuvre  of  the  apparatus 
in  the  air  could  have  no  effect  on  the  apparatus  on  the 
ground,  and  to  convince  oneself  of  this  point  it  is  only 
necessary  to  consider  the  small  surface  of  this  canvas 
rudder  compared  with  the  mass  to  be  handled  on  the 
ground,  a  weight  of  approximately  400  kg.  According 
to  my  idea,  and  as  I  have  stated  in  my  report,  M.  Ader 
should  have  steered  by  increasing  the  speed  on  one  of 
his  propellers  and  slowing  down  the  other.  He  admitted 
afterward  that  this  remark  was  well  founded,  but  that 
he  did  not  have  time  to  think  of  it  owing  to  the  sudden- 
ness of  the  accident. 

3.  *  When  the  apparatus  fell  on  its  side  it  was  under 
the  sole  influence  of  the  wind,  since  M.  Ader  had  stopped 
the  machine.  Have  we  not  a  result  here  which  will 
always  be  the  same  when  the  machine  comes  to  the 
ground,  since  the  engines  will  always  have  to  be  stopped 
or  slowed  down  when  coming  to  the  ground  ?  Here 
seems  to  be  a  bad  defect  of  the  apparatus  under  trial.' 

Answer. — I  believe  that  the  apparatus  fell  on  its 
side  after  coming  to  a  stop,  not  on  account  of  the  wind, 
but  because  the  semicircle  described  was  on  rough 
ground  and  one  of  the  wheels  had  collapsed. 

MENSIER. 
October  27 th,   1897. 


478 


APPENDIX  B 

Specification  and  Claims  of  Wright  Patent^  No.  821393. 
Filed  March  23^,  1903.  Issued  May  22ndy  1906. 
Expires  May  iind>  1923. 

To  all  whom  it  may  concern. 

Be  it  known  that  we,  Orville  Wright  and  Wilbur 
Wright,  citizens  of  the  United  States,  residing  in  the 
city  of  Dayton,  county  of  Montgomery,  and  State  of 
Ohio,  have  invented  certain  new  and  useful  Improve- 
ments in  Flying  Machines,  of  which  the  following  is  a 
specification. 

Our  invention  relates  to  that  class  of  flying-machines 
in  which  the  weight  is  sustained  by  the  reactions  resulting 
when  one  or  more  aeroplanes  are  moved  through  the 
air  edgewise  at  a  small  angle  of  incidence,  either  by 
the  application  of  mechanical  power  or  by  the  utilisation 
of  the  force  of  gravity. 

The  objects  of  our  invention  are  to  provide  means 
for  maintaining  or  restoring  the  equilibrium  or  lateral 
balance  of  the  apparatus,  to  provide  means  for  guiding 
the  machine  both  vertically  and  horizontally,  and  to 
provide  a  structure  combining  lightness,  strength, 
convenience  of  construction  and  certain  other  advantages 
which  will  hereinafter  appear. 

To  these  ends  our  invention  consists  in  certain  novel 
features,  which  we  will  now  proceed  to  describe  and  will 
then  particularly  point  out  in  the  claims. 

479 


APPENDICES 

In  the  accompanying  drawings,  Figure  I  is  a  per- 
spective view  of  an  apparatus  embodying  our  invention 
in  one  form.  Fig.  2  is  a  plan  view  of  the  same,  partly 
in  horizontal  section  and  partly  broken  away.  Fig.  3 
is  a  side  elevation,  and  Figs.  4  and  5  are  detail  views, 
of  one  form  of  flexible  joint  for  connecting  the  upright 
standards  with  the  aeroplanes. 

In  flying  machines  of  the  character  to  which  this 
invention  relates  the  apparatus  is  supported  in  the  air 
by  reason  of  the  contact  between  the  air  and  the  under 
surface  of  one  or  more  aeroplanes,  the  contact  surface 
being  presented  at  a  small  angle  of  incidence  to  the 
air.  The  relative  movements  of  the  air  and  aeroplane 
may  be  derived  from  the  motion  of  the  air  in  the  form  of 
wind  blowing  in  the  direction  opposite  to  that  in  which 
the  apparatus  is  travelling  or  by  a  combined  downward 
and  forward  movement  of  the  machine,  as  in  starting 
from  an  elevated  position  or  by  combination  of  these 
two  things,  and  in  either  case  the  operation  is  that  of  a 
soaring-machine,  while  power  applied  to  the  machine 
to  propel  it  positively  forward  will  cause  the  air  to 
support  the  machine  in  a  similar  manner.  In  either 
case  owing  to  the  varying  conditions  to  be  met  there 
are  numerous  disturbing  forces  which  tend  to  shift  the 
machine  from  the  position  which  it  should  occupy  to 
obtain  the  desired  results.  It  is  the  chief  object  of  our 
invention  to  provide  means  for  remedying  this  difficulty, 
and  we  will  now  proceed  to  describe  the  construction 
by  means  of  which  these  results  are  accomplished. 

In  the  accompanying  drawing  we  have  shown  an 
apparatus  embodying  our  invention  in  one  form.  In 
this  illustrative  embodiment  the  machine  is  shown  as 
comprising  two  parallel  superposed  aeroplanes,  i  and  2 

480 


•<        «•*"•• 


APPENDICES 

may  be  embodied  in  a  structure  having  a  single  aero- 
plane. Each  aeroplane  is  of  considerably  greater  width 
from  side  to  side  than  from  front  to  rear.  The  four 
corners  of  the  upper  aeroplane  are  indicated  by  the 
reference  letters  #,  b,  c,  and  </,  while  the  corresponding 
corners  of  the  lower  aeroplane  2  are  indicated  by  the 
reference  letters  e,  /,  g^  and  h.  The  marginal  lines  a  b 
and  ef  indicate  the  front  edges  of  the  aeroplanes,  the 
lateral  margins  of  the  upper  aeroplane  are  indicated, 
respectively,  by  the  lines  a  d  and  b  c,  the  lateral  margins 
of  the  lower  aeroplane  are  indicated,  respectively,  by 
the  lines  e  h  and/£,  while  the  rear  margins  of  the  upper 
and  lower  aeroplanes  are  indicated,  respectively,  by  the 
lines  c  d  and  g  h. 

Before  proceeding  to  a  description  of  the  fundamental 
theory  of  operation  of  the  structure  we  will  first  describe 
the  preferred  mode  of  constructing  the  aeroplanes  and 
those  portions  of  the  structure  which  serve  to  connect 
the  two  aeroplanes. 

Each  aeroplane  is  formed  by  stretching  cloth  or 
other  suitable  fabric  over  a  frame  composed  of  two 
parallel  transverse  spars  3,  extending  from  side  to  side 
of  the  machine,  their  ends  being  connected  by  bows  4, 
extending  from  front  to  rear  of  the  machine.  The 
front  and  rear  spars  3  of  each  aeroplane  are  connected 
by  a  series  of  parallel  ribs  5,  which  preferably  extend 
somewhat  beyond  the  rear  spar,  as  shown.  These 
spars,  bows,  and  ribs  are  preferably  constructed  of 
wood  having  the  necessary  strength,  combined  with 
lightness  and  flexibility.  Upon  this  framework  the 
cloth  which  forms  the  supporting  surface  of  the  aeroplane 
is  secured,  the  frame  being  enclosed  in  the  cloth.  The 
cloth  for  each  aeroplane  previous  to  its  attachment  to 

482 


APPENDICES 

its  frame  is  cut  on  the  bias  and  made  up  into  a  single  piece 
approximately  the  size  and  shape  of  the  aeroplane, 
having  the  threads  of  the  fabric  arranged  diagonally  to 
the  transverse  spars  and  longitudinal  ribs,  as  indicated 
at  6  in  Fig.  2.  Thus  the  diagonal  threads  of  the  cloth 
form  truss  systems  with  the  spars  and  ribs,  the  threads 
constituting  the  diagonal  members.  A  hem  is  formed 
at  the  rear  edge  of  the  cloth  to  receive  a  wire  7,  which 
is  connected  to  the  ends  of  the  rear  spar  and  supported 
by  the  rearwardly-extendng  ends  of  the  longitudinal 
ribs  5,  thus  forming  a  rearwardly-extending  flap  or 
portion  of  the  aeroplane.  This  construction  of  the 
aeroplane  gives  a  surface  which  has  very  great  strength 
to  withstand  lateral  and  longitudinal  strains,  at  the 
same  time  being  capable  of  being  bent  or  twisted  in  the 
manner  hereinafter  described. 

When  two  aeroplanes  are  employed,  as  in  the  con- 
struction illustrated,  they  are  connected  together  by 
upright  standards  8.  These  standards  are  substantially 
rigid,  being  preferably  constructed  of  wood  and  of 
equal  length,  equally  spaced  along  the  front  and  rear 
edges  of  the  aeroplane,  to  which  they  are  connected  at 
their  top  and  bottom  ends  by  hinged  joints  or  universal 
joints  of  any  suitable  description.  We  have  shown 
one  form  of  connection  which  may  be  used  for  this 
purpose  in  Figs.  4  and  5  of  the  drawings.  In  this 
construction  each  end  of  the  standard  8  has  secured 
to  it  an  eye  9,  which  engages  with  a  hook  10,  secured 
to  a  bracket  plate  n,  which  latter  plate  is  in  turn 
fastened  to  the  spar  3.  Diagonal  braces  or  stay- wires 
1 2  extend  from  each  end  of  each  standard  to  the  opposite 
ends  of  the  adjacent  standards,  and  as  a  convenient 
mode  of  attaching  these  parts  I  have  shown  a  hook  1 3 

483 


APPENDICES 

made  integral  with  the  hook  10  to  receive  the  end  of 
one  of  the  stay-wires,  the  other  stay-wire  being  mounted 
on  the  hook  10.  The  hook  13  is  shown  as  bent  down 
to  retain  the  stay-wire  in  connection  to  it,  while  the  hook 
10  is  shown  as  provided  with  a  pin  14  to  hold  the  stay- 
wire  12  and  eye  9  in  position  thereon.  It  will  be  seen 
that  this  construction  forms  a  truss  system  which  gives 
the  whole  machine  great  transverse  rigidity  and  strength, 
while  at  the  same  time  the  jointed  connections  of  the 
parts  permit  the  aeroplanes  to  be  bent  or  twisted  in  the 
manner  which  we  will  now  proceed  to  describe. 

15  indicates  a  rope  or  other  flexible  connection 
extending  lengthwise  of  the  front  of  the  machine  above 
the  lower  aeroplane,  passing  under  pulleys  or  other 
suitable  guides  1 6  at  the  front  corners  e  and  /  of  the 
lower  aeroplane,  and  extending  thence  upward  and 
rearward  to  the  upper  rear  corners  c  and  </,  of  the  upper 
aeroplane,  where  they  are  attached,  as  indicated  at  17. 
To  the  central  portion  of  the  rope  there  is  connected 
a  laterally-movable  cradle  18,  which  forms  a  means 
for  moving  the  rope  lengthwise  in  one  direction  or  the 
other,  the  cradle  being  movable  toward  either  side  of 
the  machine.  We  have  devised  this  cradle  as  a  con- 
venient means  for  operating  the  rope  15,  and  the 
machine  is  intended  to  be  generally  used  with  the  operator 
lying  face  downward  on  the  lower  aeroplane,  with  his 
head  to  the  front,  so  that  the  operator's  body  rests  on 
the  cradle,  and  the  cradle  can  be  moved  laterally  by  the 
movements  of  the' operator's  body.  It  will  be  under- 
stood, however,  that  the  rope  15  may  be  manipulated 
in  any  suitable  manner. 

19  indicates  a  second  rope  extending  transversely 
of  the  machine  along  the  rear  edge  of  the  body  portion 

484 


APPENDICES 

of  the  lower  aeroplane,  passing  under  suitable  pulleys 
or  guides  20  at  the  rear  corners  g  and  h  of  the  lower 
aeroplane  and  extending  thence  diagonally  upward  to 
the  front  corners  a  and  b  of  the  upper  aeroplane,  where 
its  ends  are  secured  in  any  suitable  manner,  as  indicated 
at  21. 

Considering  the  structure  so  far  as  we  have  now 
described  it,  and  assuming  that  the  cradle  18  be  moved 
to  the  right  in  Figs.  I  and  2,  as  indicated  by  the  arrows 
applied  to  the  cradle  in  Fig.  i  and  by  the  dotted  lines 
in  Fig.  2,  it  will  be  seen  that  that  portion  of  the  rope  15 
passing  under  the  guide  pulley  at  the  corner  e  and  secured 
to  the  corner  d  will  be  under  tension,  while  slack  is  paid 
out  throughout  the  other  side  or  half  of  the  rope  15. 
The  part  of  the  rope  15  under  tension  exercises  a 
downward  pull  upon  the  rear  upper  corner  d  of  the 
structure  and  an  upward  pull  upon  the  front  lower 
corner  £,  as  indicated  by  the  arrows.  This  causes  the 
corner  d  to  move  downward  and  the  corner  e  to  move 
upward.  As  the  corner  e  moves  upward  it  carries  the 
corner  a  upward  with  it,  since  the  intermediate  standard 
8  is  substantially  rigid  and  maintains  an  equal  distance 
between  the  corners  a  and  e  at  all  times.  Similarly,  the 
standard  8,  connecting  the  corners  d  and  ^,  causes  the 
corner  h  to  move  downward  in  unison  with  the  corner 
d.  Since  the  corner  a  thus  moves  upward  and  the 
corner  h  moves  downward,  that  portion  of  the  rope  1 9 
connected  to  the  corner  a  will  be  pulled  upward  through 
the  pulley  20  at  the  corner  ^,  and  the  pull  thus  exerted 
on  the  rope  19  will  pull  the  corner  b  on  the  other  wise 
of  the  machine  downward  and  at  the  same  time  pull  the 
corner  g  at  said  other  side  of  the  machine  upward. 
This  results  in  a  downward  movement  of  the  corner  b 

485 


APPENDICES 

and  an  upward  movement  of  the  corner  c.  Thus  it 
results  from  a  lateral  movement  of  the  cradle  1 8  to  the 
right  in  Fig.  i  that  the  lateral  margins  a  d  and  e  h  at  one 
side  of  the  machine  are  moved  from  their  normal  positions 
in  which  they  lie  in  the  normal  planes  of  their  respective 
aeroplanes,  into  angular  relations  with  said  normal 
planes,  each  lateral  margin  on  this  side  of  the  machine 
being  raised  above  said  normal  plane  at  its  forward 
end  and  depressed  below  said  normal  plane  at  its  rear 
end,  said  lateral  margins  being  thus  inclined  upward 
and  forward.  At  the  same  time  a  reverse  inclination 
is  imparted  to  the  lateral  margins  b  c  and/£  at  the  other 
side  of  the  machine,  their  inclination  being  downward 
and  forward.  These  positions  are  indicated  in  dotted 
lines  in  Fig.  i  of  the  drawings.  A  movement  of  the 
cradle  18  in  the  opposite  direction  from  its  normal 
position  will  reverse  the  angular  inclination  of  the 
lateral  margins  of  the  aeroplanes  in  an  obvious  manner. 
By  reason  of  this  construction  it  will  be  seen  that  with 
the  particular  mode  of  construction  now  under  con- 
sideration it  is  possible  to  move  the  forward  corner  of 
the  lateral  edges  of  the  aeroplane  on  one  side  of  the 
machine  either  above  or  below  the  normal  planes  of  the 
aeroplanes,  a  reverse  movement  of  the  forward  corners 
of  the  lateral  margins  on  the  other  side  of  the  machine 
occurring  simultaneously.  During  this  operation  each 
aeroplane  is  twisted  or  distorted  around  a  line  extending 
centrally  across  the  same  from  the  middle  of  one  lateral 
margin  to  the  middle  of  the  other  lateral  margin,  the 
twist  due  to  the  moving  of  the  lateral  margins  to  different 
angles  extending  across  each  aeroplane  from  side  to 
side,  so  that  each  aeroplane  surface  is  given  a  helicoidal 
warp  or  twist.  We  prefer  this  construction  and  mode 

486 


APPENDICES 

of  operation  for  the  reason  that  it  gives  a  gradually 
increasing  angle  to  the  body  of  each  aeroplane  from 
the  centre  longitudinal  line  thereof  outward  to  the 
margin,  thus  giving  a  continuous  surface  on  each  side 
of  the  machine,  which  has  a  gradually  increasing  or 
decreasing  angle  of  incidence  from  the  centre  of  the 
machine  to  either  side.  We  wish  it  to  be  understood, 
however,  that  our  invention  is  not  limited  to  this 
particular  construction,  since  any  construction  whereby 
the  angular  relations  of  the  lateral  margins  of  the 
aeroplanes  may  be  varied  in  opposite  directions  with 
respect  to  the  normal  planes  of  said  aeroplanes  comes 
within  the  scope  of  our  invention.  Furthermore,  it 
should  be  understood  that  while  the  lateral  margins  of 
the  aeroplanes  move  to  different  angular  positions  with 
respect  to  or  above  and  below  the  normal  planes  of  said 
aeroplanes,  it  does  not  necessarily  follow  that  these 
movements  bring  the  opposite  lateral  edges  to  different 
angles  respectively  above  and  below  a  horizontal  plane, 
since  the  normal  planes  of  the  bodies  of  the  aeroplanes 
are  inclined  to  the  horizontal  when  the  machine  is  in 
flight,  said  inclination  being  downward  from  front  to 
rear,  and  while  the  forward  corners  on  one  side  of  the 
machine  may  be  depressed  below  the  normal  planes  of 
the  bodies  of  the  aeroplanes  said  depression  is  not 
necessarily  sufficient  to  carry  them  below  the  horizontal 
planes  passing  through  the  rear  corners  on  that  side. 
Moreover,  although  we  prefer  to  so  construct  the 
apparatus  that  the  movements  of  the  lateral  margins  on 
the  opposite  sides  of  the  machine  are  equal  in  extent 
and  opposite  in  direction,  yet  our  invention  is  not  limited 
to  a  construction  producing  this  result,  since  it  may  be 
desirable  under  certain  circumstances  to  move  the 
M.A.  487  2  i 


APPENDICES 

lateral  margins  on  one  side  of  the  machine  just  described 
without  moving  the  lateral  margins  on  the  other  side 
of  the  machine  to  an  equal  extent  in  the  opposite  direction. 
Turning  now  to  the  purpose  of  this  provision  for  moving 
the  lateral  margins  of  the  aeroplanes  in  the  manner 
described,  it  should  be  premised  that  owing  to  various 
conditions  of  wind  pressure  and  other  causes  the  body 
of  the  machine  is  apt  to  become  unbalanced  laterally, 
one  side  tending  to  sink  and  the  other  side  tending  to 
rise,  the  machine  turning  around  its  central  longitudinal 
axis.  The  provision  which  we  have  just  described 
enables  the  operator  to  meet  this  difficulty  and  preserve 
the  lateral  balance  of  the  machine.  Assuming  that  for 
some  cause  that  side  of  the  machine  which  lies  to  the 
left  of  the  observer  in  Figs.  I  and  2  has  shown  a  tendency 
to  drop  downward,  a  movement  of  the  cradle  1 8  to  the 
right  of  said  figures,  as  hereinbefore  assumed,  will 
move  the  lateral  margins  of  the  aeroplanes  in  the  manner 
already  described,  so  that  the  margins  a  d  and  e  h  will 
be  inclined  downward  and  rearward,  and  the  lateral 
margins  b  c  and/£  will  be  inclined  upward  and  rearward 
with  respect  to  the  normal  planes  of  the  bodies  of  the 
aeroplanes.  .With  the  parts  of  the  machine  in  this 
position  it  will  be  seen  that  the  lateral  margins  a  d  and 
e  h  present  a  larger  angle  of  incidence  to  the  resisting 
air,  while  the  lateral  margins  on  the  other  side  of  the 
machine  present  a  smaller  angle  of  incidence.  Owing 
to  this  fact,  the  side  of  the  machine  presenting  the  larger 
angle  of  incidence  will  tend  to  lift  or  move  upward, 
and  this  upward  movement  will  restore  the  lateral 
balance  of  the  machine.  When  the  other  side  of  the 
machine  tends  to  drop,  a  movement  of  the  cradle  1 8  in 
the  reverse  direction  will  restore  the  machine  to  its 

488 


APPENDICES 

normal  lateral  equilibrium.  Of  course,  the  same  effect 
will  be  produced  in  the  same  way  in  the  case  of  a  machine 
employing  only  a  single  aeroplane. 

In  connection  with  the  body  of  the  machine  as  thus 
operated  we  employ  a  vertical  rudder  or  tail  22,  so 
supported  as  to  turn  around  a  vertical  axis.  This  rudder 
is  supported  at  the  rear  ends  on  supports  or  arms  23, 
pivoted  at  their  forward  ends  to  the  rear  margins  of 
the  upper  and  lower  aeroplanes,  respectively.  These 
supports  are  preferably  V-shaped,  as  shown,  so  that 
their  forward  ends  are  comparatively  widely  separated, 
their  pivots  being  indicated  at  24.  Said  supports  are 
free  to  swing  upward  at  their  free  rear  ends,  as  indicated 
in  dotted  lines  in  Fig.  3,  their  downward  movement 
being  limited  in  any  suitable  manner.  The  vertical 
pivots  of  the  rudder  22  are  indicated  at  25,  and  one 
of  these  pivots  has  mounted  thereon  a  sheave  or  pulley 
26,  around  which  passes  a  tiller-rope  27,  the  ends  of 
which  are  extended  out  laterally  and  secured  to  the  rope 
19  on  opposite  sides  of  the  central  point  of  said  rope. 
By  reason  of  this  construction  the  lateral  shifting  of  the 
cradle  18  serves  to  turn  the  rudder  to  one  side  or  the 
other  of  the  line  of  flight.  It  will  be  observed  in  this 
connection  that  the  construction  is  such  that  the  rudder 
will  always  be  so  turned  as  to  present  its  resisting  surface 
on  that  side  of  the  machine  on  which  the  lateral  margins 
of  the  aeroplanes  present  the  least  angle  of  resistance. 
The  reason  of  this  construction  is  that  when  the  lateral 
margins  of  the  aeroplanes  are  so  turned  in  the  manner 
hereinbefore  described  as  to  present  different  angles 
of  incidence  to  the  atmosphere,  that  side  presenting  the 
largest  angle  of  incidence,  although  being  lifted  or  moved 
upward  in  the  manner  already  described,  at  the  same  time 

489 


APPENDICES 

meets  with  an  increased  resistance  to  its  forward  motion, 
while  at  the  same  time  the  other  side  of  the  machine, 
presenting  a  smaller  angle  of  incidence,  meets  with 
less  resistance  to  its  forward  motion  and  tends  to  move 
forward  more  rapidly  than  the  retarded  side.  This 
gives  the  machine1  a  tendency  to  turn  around  its  vertical 
axis,  and  this  tendency  if  not  properly  met  will  not  only 
change  the  direction  of  the  front  of  the  machine,  but 
will  ultimately  permit  one  side  thereof  to  drop  into  a 
position  vertically  below  the  other  side  with  the  aero- 
planes in  vertical  position,  thus  causing  the  machine  to 
fall.  The  movement  of  the  rudder,  hereinbefore 
described,  prevents  this  action,  since  it  exerts  a  retarding 
influence  on  that  side  of  the  machine  which  tends  to 
move  forward  too  rapidly  and  keeps  the  machine  with 
its  front  properly  presented  to  the  direction  of  flight 
and  with  its  body  properly  balanced  around  its  central 
longitudinal  axis.  The  pivoting  of  the  supports  23 
so  as  to  permit  them  to  swing  upward  prevents  injury 
to  the  rudder  and  its  supports  in  case  the  machine 
alights  at  such  an  angle  as  to  cause  the  rudder  to  strike 
the  ground  first,  the  parts  yielding  upward,  as  indicated 
in  dotted  lines  in  Fig.  3,  and  thus  preventing  injury 
or  breakage.  We  wish  it  to  be  understood,  however, 
that  we  do  not  limit  ourselves  to  the  particular  descrip- 
tion of  rudder  set  forth,  the  essential  being  that  the 
rudder  shall  be  vertical  and  shall  be  so  moved  as  to 
present  its  resisting  surface  on  that  side  of  the  machine 
which  offers  the  least  resistance  to  the  atmosphere,  so 
as  to  counteract  the  tendency  of  the  machine  to  turn 
around  a  vertical  axis  when  the  two  sides  thereof  offer 
different  resistances  to  the  air. 

From  the  central  portion  of  the  front  of  the  machine 

490 


APPENDICES 

struts  28  extend  horizontally  forward  from  the  lower 
aeroplane,  and  struts  29  extend  downward  and  forward 
from  the  central  portion  of  the  upper  aeroplane,  their 
front  ends  being  united  to  the  struts  28,  the  forward 
extremities  of  which  are  turned  up,  as  indicated  at  30. 
These  struts  28  and  29  form  truss-skids  projecting  in 
front  of  the  whole  frame  of  the  machine  and  serving  to 
prevent  the  machine  from  rolling  over  forward  when  it 
alights.  The  struts  29  serve  to  brace  the  upper  portion 
of  the  main  frame  and  resist  its  tendency  to  move 
forward  after  the  lower  aeroplane  has  been  stopped  by 
its  contact  with  the  earth,  thereby  relieving  the  rope  19 
from  undue  strain,  for  it  will  be  understood  that  when 
the  machine  comes  into  contact  with  the  earth,  further 
forward  movement  of  the  lower  portion  thereof  being 
suddenly  arrested,  the  inertia  of  the  upper  portion 
would  tend  to  cause  it  to  continue  to  move  forward  if 
not  prevented  by  the  struts  29,  and  this  forward  move- 
ment of  the  upper  portion  would  bring  a  very  violent 
strain  upon  the  rope  19,  since  it  is  fastened  to  the  upper 
portion  at  both  of  its  ends,  while  its  lower  portion  is 
connected  by  the  guides  20  to  the  lower  portion.  The 
struts  28  and  29  also  serve  to  support  the  front  or  hori- 
zontal rudder,  the  construction  of  which  we  will  now 
proceed  to  describe. 

The  front  rudder  31  is  a  horizontal  rudder  having 
a  flexible  body,  the  same  consisting  of  three  stiff  cross- 
pieces  or  sticks  32,  33,  and  34,  and  the  flexible  ribs  35, 
connecting  said  cross-pieces  and  extending  from  front 
to  rear.  The  frame  thus  provided  is  covered  by  a 
suitable  fabric  stretched  over  the  same  to  form  the 
body  of  the  rudder.  The  rudder  is  supported  from  the 
struts  29  by  means  of  the  intermediate  cross-piece  32, 

491 


APPENDICES 

which  is  located  near  the  centre  of  pressure  slightly  in 
front  of  a  line  equidistant  between  the  front  and  rear 
edges  of  the  rudder,  the  cross-piece  32  forming  the 
pivotal  axis  of  the  rudder,  so  as  to  constitute  a  balanced 
rudder.  To  the  front  edge  of  the  rudder  there  are 
connected  springs  36,  which  springs  are  connected  to 
the  upturned  ends  30  of  the  struts  28,  the  construction 
being  such  that  said  springs  tend  to  resist  any  movement 
either  upward  or  downward  of  the  front  edge  of  the 
horizontal  rudder.  The  rear  edge  of  the  rudder  lies 
immediately  in  front  of  the  operator  and  may  be  operated 
by  him  in  any  suitable  manner.  We  have  shown  a 
mechanism  for  this  purpose  comprising  a  roller  or 
shaft  37,  which  may  be  grasped  by  the  operator  so  as  to 
turn  the  same  in  either  direction.  Bands  38  extend 
from  the  roller  37  forward  to  and  around  a  similar  roller 
or  shaft  39,  both  rollers  or  shafts  being  supported  in 
suitable  bearings  on  the  struts  28.  The  forward  roller 
or  shaft  has  rearwardly-extending  arms  40,  which  are 
connected  by  links  4 1  with  the  rear  edge  of  the  rudder 
31.  The  normal  position  of  the  rudder  31  is  neutral 
or  substantially  parallel  with  the  aeroplanes  i  and  2; 
but  its  rear  edge  may  be  moved  upward  or  downward, 
so  as  to  be  above  or  below  the  normal  plane  of  said 
rudder  through  the  mechanism  provided  for  that 
purpose.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  springs  36  will  resist 
any  tendency  of  the  forward  edge  of  the  rudder  to  move 
in  either  direction,  so  that  when  force  is  applied  to  the 
rear  edge  of  said  rudder  the  longitudinal  ribs  35  bend, 
and  the  rudder  thus  presents  a  concave  surface  to  the 
action  of  the  wind  either  above  or  below  its  normal 
plane,  said  surface  presenting  a  small  angle  of  incidence 
at  its  forward  portion  and  said  angle  of  incidence  rapidly 

492 


APPENDICES 

increasing  toward  the  rear.  This  greatly  increases  the 
efficiency  of  the  rudder  as  compared  with  a  plane  surface 
of  equal  area.  By  regulating  the  pressure  on  the  upper 
and  lower  sides  of  the  rudder  through  changes  of  angle 
and  curvature  in  the  manner  described  a  turning  move- 
ment of  the  main  structure  around  its  transverse  axis 
may  be  effected,  and  the  course  of  the  machine  may  thus 
be  directed  upward  or  downward  at  the  will  of  the 
operator  and  the  longitudinal  balance  thereof  maintained. 

Contrary  to  the  usual  custom,  we  place  the  horizontal 
rudder  in  front  of  the  aeroplanes  at  a  negative  angle 
and  employ  no  horizontal  tail  at  all.  By  this  arrange- 
ment we  obtain  a  forward  surface  which  is  almost 
entirely  free  from  pressure  under  ordinary  conditions 
of  flight,  but  which  even  if  not  moved  at  all  from  its 
original  position  becomes  an  efficient  lifting-surface 
whenever  the  speed  of  the  machine  is  accidentally 
reduced  very  much  below  the  normal,  and  thus  largely 
counteracts  that  backward  travel  of  the  centre  of  pressure 
on  the  aeroplanes  which  has  frequently  been  productive 
of  serious  injuries  by  causing  the  machine  to  turn 
downward  and  forward  and  strike  the  ground  head-on. 
We  are  aware  that  a  forward  horizontal  rudder  of 
different  construction  has  been  used  in  combination 
with  a  supporting  surface  and  a  rear  horizontal-rudder; 
but  this  combination  was  not  intended  to  effect  and 
does  not  effect  the  object  which  we  obtain  by  the 
arrangement  hereinbefore  described. 

We  have  used  the  term  *  aeroplane  '  in  this  specifi- 
cation and  the  appended  claims  to  indicate  the  supporting 
surface  or  supporting  surfaces  by  means  of  which  the 
machine  is  sustained  in  the  air,  and  by  this  term  we  wish 
to  be  understood  as  including  any  suitable  supporting 

493 


APPENDICES 

surface  which  normally  is  substantially  flat,  although. 
of  course,  when  constructed  of  cloth  or  other  flexible 
fabric,  as  we  prefer  to  construct  them,  these  surfaces 
may  receive  more  or  less  curvature  from  the  resistance 
of  the  air,  as  indicated  in  Fig.  3. 

We  do  not  wish  to  be  understood  as  limiting  ourselves 
strictly  to  the  precise  details  of  construction  hereinbefore 
described  and  shown  in  the  accompanying  drawings, 
as  it  is  obvious  that  these  details  may  be  modified  without 
departing  from  the  principles  of  our  invention.  For 
instance,  while  we  prefer  the  construction  illustrated 
in  which  each  aeroplane  is  given  a  twist  along  its  entire 
length  in  order  to  set  its  opposite  lateral  margins  at 
different  angles,  we  have  already  pointed  out  that  our 
invention  is  not  limited  to  this  form  of  construction, 
since  it  is  only  necessary  to  move  the  lateral  marginal 
portions,  and  where  these  portions  alone  are  moved 
only  those  upright  standards  which  support  the  movable 
portion  require  flexible  connections  at  their  ends. 

Having  thus  fully  described  our  invention,  what 
we  claim  as  new,  and  desire  to  secure  by  Letters  Patent, 
is: — 

1.  In  a  flying  machine,  a  normally  flat  aeroplane 
having  lateral  marginal  portions  capable  of  movement 
to  different  positions  above  or  below  the  normal  plane 
of  the  body  of  the  aeroplane,   such  movement  being 
about  an  axis  transverse  to  the  line  of  flight,  whereby 
said  lateral  marginal  portions  may  be  moved  to  different 
angles  relatively  to  the  normal  plane  of  the  body  of  the 
aeroplane,  so  as  to  present  to  the  atmosphere  different 
angles   of  incidence,   and   means   for   so   moving   said 
lateral  marginal  portions,   substantially  as  described. 

2.  In  a  flying  machine,  the  combination,  with  two 

494 


APPENDICES 

normally  parallel  aeroplanes,  superposed  the  one  above 
the  other,  of  upright  standards  connecting  said  planes 
at  their  margins,  the  connections  between  the  standards 
and  aeroplanes  at  the  lateral  portions  of  the  aeroplanes 
being  by  means  of  flexible  joints,  each  of  said  aeroplanes 
having  lateral  marginal  portions  capable  of  movement 
to  different  positions  above  or  below  the  normal  plane 
of  the  body  of  the  aeroplane,  such  movement  being 
about  an  axis  transverse  to  the  line  of  flight,  whereby 
said  lateral  marginal  portions  may  be  moved  to  different 
angles  relatively  to  the  normal  plane  of  the  body  of  the 
aeroplane,  so  as  to  present  to  the  atmosphere  different 
angles  of  incidence,  the  standards  maintaining  a  fixed 
distance  between  the  portions  of  the  aeroplanes  which 
they  connect,  and  means  for  imparting  such  movement 
to  the  lateral  marginal  portions  of  the  aeroplanes, 
substantially  as  described. 

3.  In  a  flying  machine,  a  normally  flat  aeroplane 
having  lateral  marginal  portions  capable  of  movement 
to  different  positions  above  or  below  the  normal  plane 
of  the  body  of  the  aeroplane,   such  movement  being 
about  an  axis  transverse  to  the  line  of  flight,  whereby 
said  lateral  marginal  portions  may  be  moved  to  different 
angles  relatively  to  the  normal  plane  of  the  body  of  the 
aeroplane,  and  also  to  different  angles  relatively  to  each 
other,    so   as   to   present   to   the   atmosphere   different 
angles    of   incidence,    and    means    for    simultaneously 
imparting    such    movement    to    said    lateral    marginal 
portions,  substantially  as  described. 

4.  In    a    flying    machine,    the    combination,    with 
parallel    superposed    aeroplanes,    each    having    lateral 
marginal    portions    capable   of  movement   to   different 
positions  above  or  below  the  normal  plane  of  the  body 

495 


APPENDICES 

of  the  aeroplane,  such  movement  being  about  an  axis 
transverse  to  the  line  of  flight,  whereby  said  lateral 
marginal  portions  may  be  moved  to  different  angles 
relatively  to  the  normal  plane  of  the  body  of  the  aeroplane, 
and  to  different  angles  relatively  to  each  other,  so  as  to 
present  to  the  atmosphere  different  angles  of  incidence, 
of  uprights  connecting  said  aeroplanes  at  their  edges, 
the  uprights  connecting  the  lateral  portions  of  the 
aeroplanes  being  connected  with  said  aeroplanes  by 
flexible  joints,  and  means  for  simultaneously  imparting 
such  movement  to  said  lateral  marginal  portions,  the 
standards  maintaining  a  fixed  distance  between  the 
parts  which  they  connect,  whereby  the  lateral  portions 
on  the  same  side  of  the  machine  are  moved  to  the  same 
angle,  substantially  as  described. 

5.  In  a  flying  machine,  an  aeroplane  having  sub- 
stantially the  form  of  a  normally  flat  rectangle  elongated 
transversely  to  the  line  of  flight,  in  combination  which 
means    for   imparting    to    the   lateral    margins    of  said 
aeroplane  a  movement  about  an  axis  lying  in  the  body 
of  the  aeroplane  perpendicular  to  said  lateral  margins, 
and  thereby  moving  said  lateral  margins  into  different 
angular  relations  to  the  normal  plane  of  the  body  of  the 
aeroplane,  substantially  as  described. 

6.  In  a  flying  machine,  the  combination,  with  two 
superposed    and    normally    parallel    aeroplanes,     each 
having  substantially  the  form  of  a  normally  flat  rectangle 
elongated  transversely  to  the  line  of  flight,  of  upright 
standards  connecting  the  edges  of  said  aeroplanes  to 
maintain    their    equidistance,    those    standards    at    the 
lateral    portions    of   said    aeroplanes    being    connected 
therewith  by  flexible  joints,  and  means  for  simultaneously 
imparting  to  both  lateral  margins    of  both  aeroplanes 

496 


APPENDICES 

a  movement  about  axes  which  are  perpendicular  to 
said  margins  and  in  the  planes  of  the  bodies  of  the 
respective  aeroplanes,  and  thereby  moving  the  lateral 
margins  on  the  opposite  sides  of  the  machine  into 
different  angular  relations  to  the  normal  planes  of  the 
respective  aeroplanes,  the  margins  on  the  same  side  of 
the  machine  moving  to  the  same  angle,  and  the  margins 
on  one  side  of  the  machine  moving  to  an  angle  different 
from  the  angle  to  which  the  margins  on  the  other  side 
of  the  machine  move,  substantially  as  described. 

7.  In  a  flying  machine,  the  combination,  with  an 
aeroplane,   and   means   for   simultaneously  moving  the 
lateral  portions  thereof  into  different  angular  relations 
to  the  normal  plane  of  the  body  of  the  aeroplane  and  to 
each  other,  so  as  to  present  to  the  atmosphere  different 
angles   of  incidence,   of  a  vertical   rudder,   and  means 
whereby  said  rudder  is  caused  to  present  to  the  wind 
that  side  thereof  nearest  the  side  of  the  aeroplane  having 
the  smaller  angle  of  incidence  and  offering  the  least 
resistance  to  the  atmosphere,  substantially  as  described. 

8.  In  a  flying  machine,  the  combination,  with  two 
superposed   and   normally   parallel   aeroplanes,    upright 
standards   connecting  the  edges  of  said  aeroplanes   to 
maintain    their    equidistance,    those    standards    at    the 
lateral    portions    of   said    aeroplanes    being    connected 
therewith  by  flexible  joints,  and  means  for  simultaneously 
moving   both   lateral   portions   of  both  aeroplanes   into 
different  angular  relations  to  the  normal  planes  of  the 
bodies  of  the  respective  aeroplanes,  the  lateral  portions 
on  one  side  of  the  machine  being  moved  to  an  angle 
different  from  that  to  which  the  lateral  portions  on  the 
other  side  of  the  machine  are  moved,  so  as  to  present 
different  angles  of  incidence  at  the  two  sides  of  the 

497 


APPENDICES 

machine,  of  a  vertical  rudder,  and  means  whereby  said 
rudder  is  caused  to  present  to  the  wind  that  side  thereof 
nearest  the  side  of  the  aeroplanes  having  the  smaller 
angle  of  incidence  and  offering  the  least  resistance  to 
the  atmosphere,  substantially  as  described. 

9.  In  a  flying  machine,  an  aeroplane  normally  flat 
and    elongated   transversely   to   the    line   of  flight,    in 
combination  with  means  for  imparting  to  said  aeroplane 
a  helicoidal  warp  around  an  axis  transverse  to  the  line 
of  flight  and  extending  centrally  along  the  body  of  the 
aeroplane   in   the   direction   of  the   elongation   of  the 
aeroplane,  substantially  as  described. 

10.  In    a    flying    machine,    two    aeroplanes,    each 
normally  flat  and  elongated  transversely  to  the  line  of 
flight,  and  upright  standards  connecting  the  edges  of 
said    aeroplanes    to    maintain    their    equidistance,    the 
connections    between    said    standards    and    aeroplanes 
being  by  means  of  flexible  joints,  in  combination  with 
means   for   simultaneously   imparting   to   each   of  said 
aeroplanes  a  helicoidal  warp  around  an  axis  transverse 
to  the  line  of  flight  and  extending  centrally  along  the 
body  of  the  aeroplane  in  the  direction  of  the  aeroplane, 
substantially  as  described. 

11.  In    a    flying    machine,    two    aeroplanes,    each, 
normally  flat  and  elongated  transversely  to  the  line  of 
flight,  and  upright  standards  connecting  the  edges  of 
said    aeroplanes    to    maintain    their    equidistance,    the 
connections    between    such    standards    and    aeroplanes 
being  by  means  of  flexible  joints,  in  combination  with 
means   for   simultaneously   imparting    to   each   of  said 
aeroplanes  a  helicoidal  warp  around  an  axis  transverse 
to  the  line  of  flight  and  extending  centrally  along  the 
body  of  the  aeroplane  in  the  direction  of  the  elongation 

498 


APPENDICES 

of  the  aeroplane,  a  vertical  rudder,  and  means  whereby 
said  rudder  is  caused  to  present  to  the  wind  that  side 
thereof  nearest  the  side  of  the  aeroplanes  having  the 
smaller  angle  of  incidence  and  offering  the  least  resistance 
to  the  atmosphere,  substantially  as  described. 

12.  In  a  flying  machine,  the  combination,  with  an 
aeroplane,  of  a  normally  flat  and  substantially  horizontal 
flexible    rudder,    and   means    for    curving   said   rudder 
rearwardly  and  upwardly  or  rearwardly  and  downwardly 
with    respect    to    its    normal    plane,    substantially    as 
described. 

13.  In  a  flying  machine,  the  combination,  with  an 
aeroplane,  of  a  normally  flat  and  substantially  horizontal 
flexible  rudder  pivotally  mounted  on  an  axis  transverse 
to  the  line  of  flight  near  its  centre,   springs  resisting 
vertical   movement   of  the  front  edge  of  said  rudder, 
and  means  for  moving  the  rear  edge  of  said  rudder, 
above  or  below  the  normal  plane  thereof,  substantially 
as  described. 

14.  A     flying     machine      comprising     superposed 
connected  aeroplanes    means  for  moving  the  opposite 
lateral   portions  of  said  aeroplanes  to  different  angles 
to  the  normal  planes  thereof,  a  vertical  rudder,  means 
for  moving  said  vertical  rudder  toward  that  side  of  the 
machine  presenting  the  smaller  angle  of  incidence  and 
the  least  resistance  to  the  atmosphere,  and  a  horizontal 
rudder  provided  with  means  for  presenting  its  upper 
or  under  surface  to  the  resistance  of  the  atmosphere, 
substantially  as  described. 

15.  A     flying     machine     comprising     superposed 
connected  aeroplanes,  means  for  moving  the  opposite 
lateral  portions  of  said  aeroplanes  to  different  angles  to 
the  normal  planes  thereof,  a  vertical  rudder,  means  for 

499 


APPENDICES 

moving  said  vertical  rudder  toward  that  side  of  the 
machine  presenting  the  smaller  angle  of  incidence 
and  the  least  resistance  to  the  atmosphere,  and  a  horizontal 
rudder  provided  with  means  for  presenting  its  upper  or 
under  surface  to  the  resistance  of  the  atmosphere,  said 
vertical  rudder  being  located  at  the  rear  of  the  machine 
and  said  horizontal  rudder  at  the  front  of  the  machine, 
substantially  as  described. 

1 6.  In    a    flying    machine,   the    combination,   with 
two  superposed  and  connected  aeroplanes,  of  an   arm 
extending    rearward    from    each    aeroplane,    said    arms 
being  parallel  and  free  to  swing  upward  at  their  rear 
ends,   and  a  vertical  rudder  pivotally  mounted  in  the 
rear  ends  of  said  arms,  substantially  as  described. 

17.  A   flying  machine   comprising  two  superposed 
aeroplanes,  normally  flat  but  flexible,  upright  standards 
connecting  the  margins  of  said  aeroplanes,  said  standards 
being  connected  to  said  aeroplanes  by  universal  joints, 
diagonal  stay-wires  connecting  the  opposite  ends  of  the 
adjacent   standards,   a  rope   extending  along  the   front 
edge  of  the  lower  aeroplane,  passing  through  guides  at 
the  front  corners  thereof,  and  having  its  ends  secured 
to  the  rear  corners  of  the  upper  aeroplane,  and  a  rope 
extending  along  the  rear  edge  of  the  lower  aeroplane, 
passing  through  guides  at  the  rear  corners  thereof,  and 
having  its  ends  secured  to  the  front  corners  of  the  upper 
aeroplane,  substantially  as  described. 

1 8.  A  flying  machine   comprising  two  superposed 
aeroplanes,  normally  flat  but  flexible,  upright  standards 
connecting  the  margins  of  said  aeroplanes,  said  standards 
being  connected  to  said  aeroplanes  by  universal  joints, 
diagonal  stay-wires  connecting  the  opposite  ends  of  the 
adjacent   standards,   a  rope   extending  along  the  front 

500 


APPENDICES 

edge  of  the  lower  aeroplane,  passing  through  guides 
at  the  front  corners  thereof,  and  having  its  ends  secured 
to  the  rear  corners  of  the  upper  aeroplane,  and  a  rope 
extending  along  the  rear  edge  of  the  lower  aeroplane, 
passing  through  guides  at  the  rear  corners  thereof, 
and  having  its  ends  secured  to  the  front  corners  of  the 
upper  aeroplane,  in  combination  with  a  vertical  rudder, 
and  a  tiller-rope  connecting  said  rudder  with  the  rope 
extending  along  the  rear  edge  of  the  lower  aeroplane, 
substantially  as  described. 

ORVILLE  WRIGHT. 
WILBUR  WRIGHT. 
Witnesses : 

Chas.  E.  Taylor. 

E.  Earle  Forrer. 


501 


APPENDIX  C 

Proclamation   -published  by   the   French    Government 
on  balloon  ascents,   1783. 

NOTICE  TO  THE  PUBLIC!    PARIS,  IJTH  AUGUST,   1783. 

On  the  Ascent  of  balloons  or  globes  in  the  air.  The 
one  in  question  has  been  raised  in  Paris  this  day,  27th 
August,  1783,  at  5  p.m.,  in  the  Champ  de  Mars. 

A  Discovery  has  been  made,  which  the  Government 
deems  it  right  to  make  known,  so  that  alarm  be  not 
occasioned  to  the  people. 

On  calculating  the  different  weights  of  hot  air, 
hydrogen  gas,  and  common  air,  it  has  been  found  that 
a  balloon  filled  with  either  of  the  two  former  will  rise 
toward  heaven  till  it  is  in  equilibrium  with  the  surround- 
ing air,  which  may  not  happen  until  it  has  attained  a 
great  height. 

The  first  experiment  was  made  at  Annonay,  in 
Vivarais,  MM.  Mongolfier,  the  inventors;  a  globe 
formed  of  canvas  and  paper,  105  feet  in  circumference, 
filled  with  heated  air,  reached  an  uncalculated  height. 
The  same  experiment  has  just  been  renewed  in  Paris 
before  a  great  crowd.  A  globe  of  taffetas  or  light  canvas 
covered  by  elastic  gum  and  filled  with  inflammable  air, 
has  risen  from  the  Champ  de  Mars,  and  been  lost 
to  view  in  the  clouds,  being  borne  in  a  north-westerly 
direction.  One  cannot  foresee  where  it  will  descend. 

$02 


APPENDICES 

It  is  proposed  to  repeat  these  experiments  on  a 
larger  scale.  Any  one  who  shall  see  in  the  sky  such  a 
globe,  which  resembles  '  la  lune  obscurcie,'  should  be 
aware  that,  far  from  being  an  alarming  phenomenon, 
it  is  only  a  machine  that  cannot  possibly  cause  any 
harm,  and  which  will  some  day  prove  serviceable  to 
the  wants  of  society. 

(Signed)      DE  SAUVIGNY. 
LENOIR. 


H.A,  5-03  2  K 


A  SHORT  BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF 
AERONAUTICS. 

A  COMPLETE  bibliography  of  aeronautical  works  issued 
up  to  1909,  published  by  the  Smithsonian  Institute, 
Washington,  gives  no  less  than  13,500  entries  of  book 
pamphlets,  and  articles  ;  in  all  probability,  between 
that  time  and  the  present,  the  total  has  been  more  than 
doubled.  The  following  is  a  list  of  outstanding  work 
on  the  subject  from  the  earliest  times,  and,  in  a  good 
many  cases,  the  works  mentioned  give  further  biblio- 
graphies. The  Smithsonian  publication,  differentiating 
very  little  between  the  solid  work  on  the  subject  and 
the  magazine  article,  is  of  little  use  except  to  the  advanced 
student  of  the  subject  ;  the  following  list  is  compiled 
with  a  view  to  directing  attention  to  the  more  notable 
books  and  publications — a  complete  bibliography,  as 
appendix  to  a  work  on  aeronautics,  is  an  impossibility  : — 

Prodromo   All  Arte   M<estra,    by    Francesco     Lana. 
Brescia,  1670. 

Mathematical    Magic,    by    J.    Wilkins,    Bishop    of 
Chester.     London,  1691. 

The  Air  Balloon^  or  a  Treatise  on  the  Aerostatic  Globe. 
London,  1783. 

Description  des  Experiences  de  la  Machine  Aerostatique, 
by  F.  St  Fond.     2  vols.     Paris,  1783. 

Hints  of  Important  Uses  to  be  derived  from  Aerostatic 
Globes,  by  T.  Martyn.     London,  1784, 

504 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Account  of  the  First  Aerial  Voyage  in  England^  by 
V.  Lunardi.  London,  1784. 

Narrative  of  M.  Blanchard' s  Third  Aerial  Voyage, 
translated  from  the  French  of  M.  Blanchard.  London, 

1784. 

Journal  and  Certificates  of  the  Fourth  Voyage  of  M. 
Blanchard.  London,  1784. 

Breslaw's  Last  Legacy.  With  an  accurate  description 
of  the  method  how  to  make  the  air  balloon.  London, 
1784. 

Thoughts  of  the  Further  Improvement  of  Aerostation* 
London,  1785. 

Treatise  on  Aerostatic  Machines^  by  J.  Southern. 
Birmingham,  1785. 

Lunardi  s  Account  of  his  Second  Aerial  Voyage  from 
Liverpool^  August  9^,  1785.  London,  1785  or  1786. 

An  Account  of  Mr  James  Decker  s  Two  Aerial  Expedi- 
tions. Norwich,  1785. 

The  History  and  Practice  of  Aerostation^  by  Tiberius 
Cavallo,  F.R.S.  London,  1785. 

Eloge  Funebre  de  M.  Pilatre  de  Rozier,  by  M. 
Lenoir,  London,  1785. 

Airopaida,  by  T.  Baldwin.     Chester,  1786. 

An  Account  of  Five  Aerial  Voyages  in  Scotland^  by 
V.  Lunardi.  London,  1786. 

A  Narrative  of  the  Two  Aerial  Voyages  of  Dr  Jeffries 
with  Mons.  Blanchard^  by  Dr  Jeffries.  London,  1786. 

Account  of  the  Three  Last  Aerial  Voyages  made  by 
M.  Garnerin.  Somerstown,  1803.  (?) 

Aeronautica^  or  Voyages  in  the  Air^  by  M.  Garnerin. 
London,  1803.  (?) 

Treatise  on  the  Use  of  Balloons  in  Military  Operations^ 
by  Lieut.-Col.  Money.  London,  1803. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

A  Treatise  upon  the  Art  of  Flying,  by  Thomas  Walker. 
Hull,  1 8 10. 

The  Aerial  Voyage  of  Mr  Sadler  across  the  Irish 
Channel^  October  ist,  1812.  Dublin,  1812. 

A  Narrative  of  the  Aerial  Voyage  of  Mr  Windham 
Sadler  across  the  Irish  Channel,  July,  1817.  Dublin,  1827. 

The  Aeropleustic  Art,  or  Navigation  in  the  Air  by 
Means  of  Kites  or  Buoyant  Sails,  by  George  Pocock. 
London,  1827. 

Annals  of  Some  Remarkable  Aerial  and  Alpine 
Voyages,  by  T.  Forster,  M.B.  London,  1832. 

Aeronautica,   by   Monk   Mason.     London,    1838. 

An  Essay  on  Aerial  Navigation,  by  Joseph 
MacSweeney,  M.D.  Cork,  1844. 

The  Balloon,  or  Aerostatic  Magazine,  by  Henry 
Coxwell.  London,  1845. 

A  System  of  Aeronautics,  by  John  Wise.  Phila- 
delphia, 1850. 

Histoires  de  la  Locomotion  Aerienne,  by  Julian  Turgan. 
Paris,  1851. 

Balloons  for  Warfare,  by  Henry  Coxwell.  London, 
1854. 

The  History  of  the  Char-volant  or  Kite  Carriage. 
London,  1851. 

The  Giant  Balloon,  by  F.  Silas.     London,   1863. 

Meteorological  and  Physical  Observations  made  in 
Balloon  Ascents,  by  James  Glaisher.  London,  Reprint 
from  Report  of  British  Association,  1864. 

Astra  Castra,  by  Hatton  Turner.     London,  1865. 

The  Right  to  Fly,  translated  from  the  French  of  Nadar. 
London,  1866. 

The  Mechanical  Alliances  by  which  Flight  is  Attained, 
by  J.  B.  Pettigrew,  M.D.  London,  1867.  (?) 

506 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Travels  in  the  Air,  by  James  Glaisher.  London, 
1871. 

Animal  Locomotion,  with  a  'Dissertation  on  Aeron- 
autics, by  J.  B.  Pettigrew,  M.D.  London,  1874. 

Animal  Mechanism,  by  E.  J.  Marey.    London,  1874. 

Aerial  Navigation,  by  C.  B.  Mansfield.    London,  1877. 

The  Aerial  World,  by  Dr  G.  Hartig.  (New  Edition.) 
London,  1881. 

Ballooning,  by  G.  May.     London,  1886. 

My  Life  and  Balloon  Experiences,  by  Henry  Coxwell. 
London,  1887. 

My  Life  and  Balloon  Experiences  (second  series). 
London,  1889. 

Experiments  in  Aerodynamics,  by  S.  Pierpont  Langley. 
Washington,  1891. 

Aerial  Navigation,  by  Octave  Chanute.  New  York, 
1891. 

Screw-propelled  Aero-plane  Machines,  by  E.  J. 
Stringfellow.  Chard,  1892. 

The  Internal  Work  of  the  Wind,  by  S.  P.  Langley. 
Washington,  1893. 

Progress  in  Flying  Machines,  by  Octave  Chanute. 
New  York,  1894. 

Aerial  Navigation,  by  A.  F.  Zahm.  Philadelphia, 
1894. 

Aerial  Navigation,  by  Fijnje  van  Salverda.  New 
York,  1894. 

The  Aeronautical  Annual,  by  J.  S.  Means.  3  vols. 
Boston,  U.S.A.,  1895-6-7. 

Manual  of  Military  Ballooning.  British  War  Office 
publication.  London,  1896. 

The  Navigation  of  the  Air,  by  A.  McCallum.  Aero- 
nautical Society,  London,  1897. 

H.A.  5°7  2K2 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Gliding  Experiments,  by  Octave  Chanute.  Western 
Society  of  Engineers,  U.S.A.,  1897. 

Parakites,  by  G.  T.  Woglom.     New  York,  1897. 

The  Mechanism  and  Equilibrium  of  Kites,  by  Professor 
Marvin.  Washington,  1897. 

Andree  and  his  Balloon,  by  H.  Lachambre  and  A. 
Machuron.  London,  1898. 

La  Conquete  de  I }  Air,  by  L.  Sazerac  de  Forge. 
Paris,  1900.  This  is  one  of  the  most  exhaustive  accounts 
of  the  development  of  dirigible  airships  that  has  been 
produced.  Special  attention  is  paid  to  the  Lebaudy  type. 

Aerial  Navigation,  by  Frederick  Walker.  London, 
1902. 

Practical  Kites  and  Aeroplanes,  by  Frederick  Walker. 
London,  1903. 

My  Airships,  by  A.  Santos  Dumont.  London,  1904. 
A  personal  account  by  the  French  pioneer  of  aero- 
static experiment. 

Flying  Machines  with  Paddling  Wings,  by  Andre 
Delprat.  London,  1904. 

Manual  of  Military  Ballooning.  London,  by 
Authority,  1905. 

Resistance  of  the  Air  and  the  Question  of  Flying,  by 
Arnold  Samuelson.  Hamburg,  1905. 

Navigating  the  Air.  Published  by  the  Aero  Club 
of  America.  New  York,  1907. 

Flying  Machines :  Past,  Present,  and  Future,  by 
A.  W.  Marshall  and  H.  Greenly.  London,  1907.  (?) 

A  History  of  Balloons  and  Flying  Machines,  by  Lord 
Montagu.  London,  1907. 

Pocketbook  of  Aeronautics,  by  Major  H.  Moedebeck. 
London,  1907.  One  of  the  most  valuable  reference 
works  on  the  subject  that  has  been  compiled. 

508 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

The  Problem  of  Flight,  by  Herbert  Chatley.  London, 
1907. 

Aerial  Flight:  Aerodynamics,  by  F.  W.  Lanchester. 
London,  1907. 

Aerial  Locomotion,  by  A.  Graham  Bell.  Washington, 
1907. 

Researches  on  the  Form  and  Stability  of  Aeroplanes, 
by  W.  R.  Turnbull.  Reprint  from  the  Physical  Review, 
London,  1907. 

Aerial  Flight :    Aerodonetics,  by  F.  W.  Lanchester. 
London,  1908. 

Airships,  Past  and  Present,  by  A.  Hildebrandt. 
London,  1908.  An  English  translation  from  the 
German,  which  embodies  all  that  had  been  done  up  to 
1906  or  thereabouts  in  dirigible  construction,  with  a 
few  notes  on  aeroplane  design  and  progress.  In  various 
details  Hildebrandt  is  incorrect,  but  there  is  a  good 
deal  in  his  work  which  is  of  value  to  the  student,  if  a 
confirming  authority  can  be  consulted. 

Aerial  Warfare,  by  R.  P.  Hearne.     London,  1908. 

Artificial  and  Natural  Flight,  by  Sir  Hiram  Maxim. 
London,  1908.  Containing  an  account  of  all  Maxim's 
experiments  up  to  the  time  of  writing. 

The  Present  Status  of  Military  Aeronautics,  by  Major 
G.  O.  Squier.  Published  by  the  American  Society  of 
Mechanical  Engineers.  1908. 

The  Problem  of  Flight,  by  Jose  Weiss.  London, 
1908. 

Practical  Aerodynamics,  by  Major  Baden-Powell. 
(Part  i.)  London,  1909. 

The  Conquest  of  the  Air,  by  A.  Berget.  London, 
1909. 

Vehicles  of  the  Air,  by  Victor  Lougheed.     Chicago 

509 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

and  London,  1909.  An  illustrated  compendium  of 
aeroplane  and  airship  design,  sketchily  written,  and 
containing  a  number  of  conclusions  which  at  the  present 
time  can  hardly  be  regarded  as  accurate.  Chiefly 
valuable  for  diagrams  and  data  of  early  machines  and 
engines. 

Model  Flying  Machines,  by  W.  G.  Aston.  London, 
1909. 

The  Aeronautical  Classics  :  i,  Aerial  Navigation, 
by  Sir  George  Cayley  ;  2.  Aerial  Locomotion,  by  F.  H. 
Wenham  ;  3.  The  Art  of  Flying,  by  Thomas  Walker  ; 
4.  The  Aerial  Ship,  by  Francesco  Lana  ;  5.  Gliding, 
by  Percy  S.  Pilcher,  and  The  Aeronautical  Work  of  John 
Stringfellow  ;  6.  The  Flight  of  Birds,  by  Giovanni  A. 
Borelli.  A  series  of  small  manuals,  mainly  reprints, 
edited  for  .  the  Aeronautical  Society  of  Great  Britain 
by  T.  O'Brien  Hubbard  and  J.  H.  Ledeboer,  of  the 
utmost  value  to  the  student  of  aeronautical  history. 
The  rescue  of  Walker's  and  Borelli's  work  from  obscurity 
is  in  particular  noteworthy  as  indicative  of  the  valuable 
work  accomplished  by  the  Aeronautical  Society. 

The  Boys'  Book  of  Airships,  by  Harry  Delacombe, 
1910,  and  The  Boys'  Book  of  Aeroplanes,  by  T.  O'Brien 
Hubbard  and  C.  C.  Turner,  1912.  Both  these  books, 
published  by  Grant  Richards,  are  of  far  greater  value 
than  their  titles  indicate.  Written  primarily  for  boys, 
they  —  especially  the  latter  —  contain  a  mass  of  historical 
information,  both  accurate  and  valuable. 

The  Langley  Memoir  on  Mechanical  Flight,  by  S.  P. 
Langley  and  Charles  Manly.  Published  by  the 
Smithsonian  Institute,  Washington. 

Aircraft  in  Warfare,  by  F.  W.  Lanchester.    London, 


510 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Bird  Flight  as  the  Basis  of  Aviation ',  by  Otto  Lilienthal. 

The  Design  of  Aeroplanes,  by  A.  W.  Judge.    London. 

The  Mechanics  of  the  Aeroplane,  by  Captain  Duchesne. 

Airscrews,  by  M.  A.  S.  Riach.  London.  The 
standard  work  on  the  subject. 

Stability  in  Aviation,  by  G.  H.  Bryan.     London. 

The  Properties  of  Aerofoils,  by  A.  W.  Judge. 
London. 

Aero  Engines,  by  G.  A.  Burls.     London. 

High  Speed  Internal  Combustion  Engines,  by  A.  W. 
Judge.  London. 

The  Aero  Engine,  by  S.  Kean.     London. 

Aircraft,  by  Evan  J.  David.  Scribner's,  New  York, 
1919.  A  rather  scrappy  account  of  the  development 
of  aeroplanes  and  dirigibles,  with  special  reference  to 
the  war  period. 

British  Airships :  Past,  Present,  and  Future,  by  George 
Whale.  London,  1919.  A  very  useful  semi-technical 
handbook  of  the  subject. 

The  Aviation  Pocket-Book,  by  H.  Borlase  Matthews. 
An  annual  compendium,  issued  by  Messrs  Crosby 
Lockwood  &  Co.,  London,  giving  fairly  full  data  of 
technical  development  year  by  year.  (Not  issued  1919 
or  1920.) 


INDEX 


Abaris,  legend  of,  7. 

A. B.C.  radial  engines,  466-7. 

Accidents,    committee    of    inquiry 

appointed,  299. 
Ader,  Clement  :   builds  'Eole,'  121; 

builds   'Avion,'    123;     account 

of    trial    flight,     124;      official 

denial  of  trial  flight,  126;    end 

of  experiments,  127;  compared 

with  the  Wrights,  211;    official 

report  on  trials,  469. 
Advisory  Committee,  British,  294. 
Aerial     Experiment    Company    of 

America,  179. 
Aerial    Locomotion,    by    Wenham, 

72-76. 

Aerial  Navigation,  by  Cayley,  45-48. 
'Aerodrome,'  Langley's,  134-44. 
Aeronautical  Classics,  48. 
Aeronautical     Exhibitions  :       The 

first,    Crystal   Palace,    69,    82; 

the    first    helicopter    at,     71; 

Exhibition  of  1911,  229;   Paris, 

1912,    294;     Paris,    1913,    304; 

Olympia,  1913,  300;  Olympia, 

1914,  305. 

Aeronautical    Society,    Royal,    72. 
Aeronautical        Society,        Annual 

Reports,  76. 

Ailerons  first  fitted,  301. 
Air  Board  formed,  258. 
Air  Force,   Royal,   formed,   258. 
Air  Force,  Royal,  strength  of,  258. 
Air  Mail,  Hendon- Windsor,  231. 
Air     Ministry     constituted,      258; 

Civil     Aviation     Department, 

264. 

Air  Navigation  Acts,  265. 
Airships  :     Astra    Torres,    349-50  ; 

Baby,  the,  361;    Barton,  359; 

Beta,   361;    Blimp  type,   363; 


British  rigids,  365-70;  Clement- 
Bayard,  349-50;  Coastal  type, 
364;  Gamma,  361;  Gross 
type.  35i;  Lebaudy,  348-9, 
362;  North  Sea  type,  364; 
Nulli  Secundus,  360;  Parseval, 
351;  R33  and  R34,  368;  R38 
class,  374;  R8o,  371;  Santos 
Dumont,  342-47;  Schutte- 
Lanz,  358;  Willows,  359; 
Zeppelin,  341-352-8;  2A, 
British  Army,  361. 

Albatross  aero  engine,  426. 

Alcock,  Sir  John,  266-7. 

Allard,    attempt   at   gliding   flight, 

33- 

Allied  war  air  equipment,    251. 
Alps,  crossed  by  Chavez,  226. 
Aluminium,   the  Schwartz  airship, 

34°- 

Alvaston  aero  engine,  441. 
America,  flight  across,    231;    R34's 

voyage  to,  370. 
Andes,  crossing  of  the,  269. 
Andree's  plans  for  a  dirigible,  331. 
Antoinette  engine,  fitted  to  Voisin, 

181;  fitted  to  Cody,  192;  fitted 

to  A.  V.  Roe,  195. 
Antoinette  monoplane,  290. 
Anzani  aero  engine,  196,  216,  419- 

21. 

Archdeacon,  Ernest,  179. 
Archytas,  legend  of,  7. 
Area  necessary  for  support,  Meer- 

wein's  statement,  42. 
Army  Air  Battalion,   British,   238. 
Art   of   Flying,    The,    by    Thomas 

Walker,  48-55. 
Ascent,     first     balloon,     322;      in 

America,     328;     in    England, 


512 


INDEX 


Ashmusen  aero  engine,  444. 
Assyrian  legends  of  flight,   5. 
Astra  Torres  airships,  350;    use  of 

ballonets,  330. 
Atlantic  flight,  265-7. 
Audemars,   at  Bournemouth,    209; 

Paris-Berlin  flight,  237. 
Aulus  Gellius,  legend  of  Archytas,  7. 
Australian  flight,  the  first,  270. 
Aviatik,    construction    of,    210. 
'Avion,'  Ader's,   123,  211;    official 

report  on,  469. 
Ayar  Utso,  Peruvian  legend  of,  8. 

'Baby'  airship,  the,  361. 

Bacon,  Francis,  on  flight,  20. 

Bacon,  Roger,  on  flight,  12. 

Ballon  sonde,  the  first,  325. 

Ballonets,  329-30,  333-4. 

Balloon  :  the  Mongolfier  type,  318; 
first  public  ascent,  319; 
Charles's  hydrogen,  320;  Mon- 
golfier later  types,  320-21-22; 
Rozier  and  d'Arlandes'  ascent, 
322;  first  ascent  in  England, 
323;  Saussure  on  cause  of 
lift,  323;  Charles,  filling 
method,  324;  Charles's  and 
Robert's  ascent,  325;  Blan- 
chard's  channel  crossing,  326; 
Robert's  observations,  327; 
Section,  Royal  Engineers,  359; 
Dirigible  (see  dirigibles),  331- 
41;  in  warfare,  376;  school  at 
Farnborough,  226. 

Balloon  ascents,  proclamation  on, 
502. 

Balloonists  :  Blanchard,  42,  326, 
378;  Mongolfier,  42,  318. 

Barton  airship,  the,  359. 

'Bat/  the,  Pilcher's  glider,   101. 

Baumgarten  and  Wolfert  dirigible, 

340,  389- 

Bayerischer  aero  engine,    429-30. 
Beaumont,  circuit  of  Britain,  220, 

230;  wins  Paris-Rome  race,  230. 


'Beetle,'  the,  Pilcher's  glider,  103. 

Belgian  provision  of  war  aircraft, 
248. 

Benz  4-cylinder  aero  engine,   401. 

Berlin,  air  services  from  and  to,  268. 

Berriman,  on  helicopter  flight,  87. 

Besnier's  gliding  experiments,  34-5. 

'Beta'  army  airship,  361. 

B.E.2,  the,  297. 

B.E.2C,  the,  304. 

Bibliography,  a  short,  504. 

Biplanes:  Albatross,  251;  Avro 
types,  195  ;  Bleriot,  183; 
Curtiss-Herring,  182;  Cody's 
first,  191-2;  Cody's 'cathedral,' 
193,  290;  Farman,  181,  217; 
Gotha,  252;  Handley-Page, 
252;  Moore-Brabazon  uses 
Short,  198;  R.E.I,  305;  R.E.P., 
182;  Sikorsky,  249;  Sopwith, 
265,  297;  Voisin,  181,  223, 
286;  the  1905  Wright,  175. 

Black,  Dr,  318. 

Blackpool  flying  meeting,  195,  206. 

Bladud,  legend  of,  9. 

Blanchard,  Jean  Pierre,  42,  326, 
378. 

Bleriot,  Louis  :  179;  flapping  wing 
experiments,  183;  flights,  184; 
at  Rheims,  200-204;  a  student 
of  Langley,  211;  construc- 
tional work,  211-12;  cross- 
country record,  222;  cross- 
channel  machine,  212,  216, 
289;  cross-channel  flight,  213- 
4;  early  flights,  221. 

Blimp  type  airship,  363. 

Bodensee,  German  airship,   375. 

Boilers,  Maxim's,  386. 

Bomb  sighting  devices,   252. 

Bombers  :  Caudron  type,  251; 
Gotha,  252;  Handley-Page, 
252;  Voisin,  251. 

Borelli,  compared  with  da  Vinci, 
18;  de  Volatu,  21-26;  his 
conclusions,  26-27. 


513 


INDEX 


Boulogne  meeting,  the,   178,  206. 

Bournemouth  meeting,  198,  207-8. 

Box  Kites,  Cody's,  189. 

Brearey's  'pectoral  cord,'   83. 

Brescia  flying  meeting,  206. 

British  flying  grounds,  the  principal, 
227;  war  construction,  259-60; 
war  aircraft,  1914,  247;  War 
Office  Trials,  194,  209,  232, 
235~7»  296;  War  Office  re- 
quirements, 1913,  300;  war 
construction,  259-60. 

Brooklands  in  the  early  days,  197, 
228. 

Cairo  to  Cape  flight,  270. 
Capnobates,  legend  of,  5. 
Capper,  Colonel  J.  E.  at  Farn- 

borough,       226;        constructs 

dirigible,  360. 
Carra's  dirigible,  332. 
Cassiodurus,  legends  by,  7. 
Castel's  helicopter,  87. 
Casualties,  British  war,  234. 
Cavallo,     Leo,     experiments     with 

hydrogen,  318. 
Cavendish,  discovery  of  hydrogen, 

318. 

Cayley,  Sir  George,  45-48. 
Certified  pilots,  list  of  in  1911,  228. 
Channel  crossing  by  Bleriot,  213-14; 

de  Lesseps,  215;    C.  S.  Rolls, 

216;    balloon,  326. 
Chanute,    O.,   gliding  experiments, 

107-115;     Wrights'     reference 

to,    153;    at    Wrights'     camp, 

157- 
Chartres,   Due  de,   balloon  ascent, 

329,  333- 
Charvolant    or    kite    carriage,    Po- 

cock's,  56. 
Chavez,   Georges :    at  Tours,   225; 

makes   British   height    record, 

225;    crosses    the    Alps,     226; 

fatal  accident,  226. 
Circuit  of  Britain  race,  220. 


Civil    Aviation    Department,     Air 

Ministry,  formed,  264. 

Clement- Bayard  dirigible,  349-50; 
engines,  444. 

Clerget  rotary  engine,  434-6. 

Coastal  type  of  British  airship,  364. 

Coatalen,  Louis,  411. 

Cockburn,  British  competitor  at 
Rheims,  201,  206. 

Cocking's  parachute,  378. 

Cody,  S.  F.,  constructs  box  kites, 
189;  constructs  dirigible,  360; 
first  biplane,  190-1;  first 
flight  in  England,  190-1;  first 
observed  flight,  222-3;  various 
flights,  192;  wins  British  War 
Office  trials,  235-7;  passenger 
flights,  193;  'cathedral'  bi- 
plane, 193;  records  achieved, 
193-4,  223;  at  Doncaster,  207; 
in  circuit  of  Britain  race,  220; 
fatal  accident,  194. 

Colombine,  associated  with  Henson 
and  Stringfellow,  60,  64. 

Commercial  Zeppelin  service,   372. 

Construction,   British  war,   259-60. 

Cosmos  '  Jupiter  '  engine,  465; 
'  Lucifer '  engine,  466. 

Cousin,  Histoire  de  Constantinople, 
ii. 

Curtiss,  Glenn,  forms  Aerial  Ex- 
periment Company,  179; 
flying  boat  construction,  242; 
flies  Langley  machine,  243-5; 
at  Rheims,  201-2. 

Curtiss-Herring  biplane,  182. 

Curtiss  Vee-type  engine,  416. 

Daedalus,  legend  of,  5. 

Daimler  aero  engines,  389-91,  394-6. 

Danti,  Giovanni,  12. 

D'Arlandes,    first    balloon    ascent, 

322. 

Darracq  aero  engines,  440,  442. 
De  Dion  aero  engines,  416. 
Degen's  flying  machine,  52. 


INDEX 


De  Havilland,  height  record,  196; 
at  Farnborough,  228. 

Delagrange,  at  Juvisy  meeting, 
185-6;  at  Rheims,  202;  at 
Doncaster,  207;  death  of,  224; 
records  made  by,  222. 

De   Lesseps  channel  crossing,  215. 

Demoiselle  monoplane,  Santos 
Dumont's,  184,  285;  Audemars, 
209. 

Deperdussin  monoplane,  294,  301-2. 

Derby,  aerial,  267. 

De  Rue,  Ferber's  pseudonym,  200. 

D'Esterno,  gliding  machine,  72; 
Du  Vol  des  Oiseaux,  72. 

Dickson,  Captain,  aero  scouting, 
in  1910,  210;  at  Tours  meeting, 
225. 

Dihedral  angle,  285. 

Diodorus's  story  of  Abaris,   7. 

Dirigibles :  French,  at  Rheims 
meeting,  203;  Baumgarten 
and  Wolfert,  340;  Carra's, 
332;  Dupuy  de  Lome's,  336; 
de  Morveau's,  332;  Giffard's, 
334-6;  Guyot's  (the  first),  332; 
Haenlein's,  Paul,  337;  Joseph 
Mongolfier's  suggestions  for 
propulsion,  331;  Meusnier's 
improvements,  333;  Miollan 
and  Janinet,  332;  Renard 
and  Krebs,  338-40;  Schwartz 
aluminium,  340;  Wellner's, 
331;  (see  airships  for  later 
types). 

Doncaster  flying  meeting,  1909, 
206. 

Dorman   aero   engines,    409-10. 

Drexel,  Armstrong,  world's  height 
record,  225. 

Dugald  Clerk's  two-stroke  engine, 

447- 
Dunne       monoplane,      the,      229; 

description  of,  293. 
Dutheil-Chambers      aero      engine, 

H1.  443- 


Electric  motor  airship  propulsion, 
390-91. 

Empedocles,  legend  of,  6. 

Engines  :  A.B.C.  'Wasp  II.'  radial, 
466;  A.B.C.  'Dragonfly' 
radial,  467;  Alvaston  rotary, 
441;  Antoinette,  181,  241; 
Anzani  rotary,  196,  216,  419- 
21  ;  Albatross  radial,  426; 
Ashmusan  horizontal,  444; 
Austro-Daimler  vertical,  403 ; 
Bayerischer  rotary,  429-30; 
Benz  4-cylinder  vertical,  259, 
401;  Burlat  rotary,  439; 
Clement-Bayard  horizontal, 
444;  Clerget  rotary,  434-6; 
Cosmos  'Jupiter'  radial,  465; 
Cosmos  'Lucifer'  radial,  466; 
Critchley's  list  of,  400,  404; 
Curtiss  Vee  type,  416;  Daimler 
vertical,  389-91,  394-6; 
Darracq  horizontal,  440,  442; 
de  Dion  Vee  type,  416;  Dor- 
man Vee  type,  409-10;  Dugald 
Clerk's  two-stroke,  447; 
Dutheil-Chambers  horizontal, 
441,  443;  Eole,  horizontal,  443; 
Esnault-Pelterie  radial,  422; 
Fredericson,  horizontal,  457; 
Giffard's,  383;  Gnome  rotary, 
181,  185,  195,  203,  224,  241, 
428-9,  431-34;  Gobe  and 
Diard's  two-stroke,  453; 
Graham  Clark's  list  of,  401; 
Green  vertical,  198,  241,  361; 
397-400;  Gyro  and  Gyro-Duplex 
rotary,  437-8;  Haenlein's 
Lenoir  type,  388;  Henson  and 
Stringfellow's,  383;  Kemp  Vee 
type,  416;  Kolb-Danvin  hori- 
zontal, 445;  Lamplough  two- 
stroke,  455;  Laviator  two- 
stroke,  454;  Lenoir  type. 
Haenlein's,  388;  Le  Rhone 
rotary,  436;  Manly,  Charles, 
radial,  139,  396,  417-9;  Maxim's 


515 


INDEX 


steam,  384;  Maybach  vertical, 
261;  Mercedes  vertical,  261; 
Mercedes -Daimler  vertical, 
402;  Mercedes  6-cylinder  verti- 
cal, 459-465;  Mort  and  New 
Engine  Co.  two-stroke,  456; 
Napier  Vee  type,  412,  414-5; 
Nieuport  Horizontal,  445; 
Palons  and  Beuse  horizontal, 
445;  Renault  Vee  type,  243, 
415;  Roberts  horizontal,  457; 
Rolls-Royce  Vee  type,  266, 
412-14;  Salmson  rotary,  422- 
6;  Stringfellow's,  383;  Sun- 
beam, 411;  Types  of,  393; 
Uberursel  rotary,  259;  Wolseley 
Vee  type,  405-9;  Wright 
Brothers,  392-3. 

Engine  development,  383-468. 

'Eole'    Ader's    monoplane,    121. 

Esnault-Pelterie,  Robert  :  early 
experiments,  179;  R.E.P. 
biplane,  182;  radial  engine,  422. 

Exhibitions  :  first  aeronautical,  69, 
82;  Paris,  1912,  294;  Paris, 
I9I3»  3°4I  Olympia,  1913, 
298,  299-300;  Olympia,  1914, 
305. 

Farman's  biplane,  Voisin  type, 
181,  287;  first  mile  flight  in 
Europe,  182  ;  first  cross- 
country flight,  222;  flights  in 
1908-9,  184,  221-2,  223;  four 
hours'  record,  185;  exhibition 
flying  in  England,  186;  at 
Rheims  meeting,  202,  223. 

Farnborough,  British  military 
establishment  at,  226;  de 
Havilland  at,  228. 

Felix,  Captain,  makes  1911  height, 
record,  230. 

Ferber's,  Captain,  experiments, 
177,  288;  book,  Aviation,  177; 
at  Rheims,  200;  death  at 
Boulogne  meeting,  178. 


Ferguson,  H.,  first  flight  in  Ireland, 

223. 
First    aeronautical    exhibition,  69, 

82. 
Flapping  wing  or  Ornithopter  flight: 

Bleriot's      experiments,      183; 

Brearey,  F.  W.,  on,  83;  Robert 

Hooke    on,    32-33;     de    Ville- 

neuve's  models,  83. 
Fokker   war   aeroplanes,    251;     in- 
ternal-bracing post-war  design, 

271. 

Forlanini's  helicopter,  Professor,  87. 
Formation  flying,  263. 
Fournier  at  Rheims,  201. 
Fourny's  distance  record,  1912,  242. 
Fredericson  two-stroke  engine,  457. 
French  military  aero  trials,  231-2; 

aircraft  in  1914,  247;  pioneers, 

179. 

Galien's  study  of  properties  of  air, 
317;  proposed  airship,  318. 

'Gamma,'    British    airship,    361. 

German  aircraft  in  1914,  246; 
war  aircraft  and  equipment, 
250;  aeroplane,  the  first,  207; 
National  Circuit  race,  230. 

Giffard's  dirigibles,  334-6;    engines, 

383- 

Gliding  flight  by  Allard,  33;  Besnier 
34;  Chanute,  107-115;  Ernest 
Archdeacon,  179;  Le  Bris, 
77-82;  Lilienthal,  96-100; 
Marshall,  Rex,  269;  Mont- 
gomery, 115-120;  Pilcher, 
Percy,  101-106;  Spencer, 
Charles,  82;  Wright  brothers, 
145-168. 

Gliding  patent,   d'Esterno's,   72. 

Gobe  and  Diard  rotary  engine,  453. 

Goldbeater's  skin  used  by  Beau- 
manoir,  322. 

Gordon-Bennett  cup,  won  by 
V6drines,  294;  race  of  1913 
301. 


516 


INDEX 


Gotha  biplane,  252;  raids  on  Eng- 
land, 255. 

Gnome  engine,  181,  185,  203,  241, 
428-9,  431-34- 

Goupil's  design  of  monoplane,  91. 

Grade,  first  German  monoplane, 
207. 

Graham-White,  London-Manches- 
ter flight,  217-220. 

Green  Engine,  vertical,  198,  241, 
361,  397-400. 

Grimaldi's   claim   to  flight,    38-39 

Gross  airship,  351. 

'Guardian  Angel'  parachute,   379. 

Guidotti's  experiments,  19. 

Guyot's  dirigible,  332. 

Guzman,  Lorenzo  de,  37,  317. 

Gyro  and  Gyro-Duplex  rotary 
engines,  437. 

Haenlein,  Paul,  dirigible  construc- 
tion, 337;  engine  used,  388. 

Haldane,  negotiations  with  Wrights, 
176. 

Hamel,  Gustav,  231. 

Hanouam,   Indian  legend  of,   9. 

Handley-Page,  F.,  machines  by, 
196,  252;  new  wing  design, 
271;  height  and  load  record, 
272. 

Hargrave,  Lawrence,  ornithopter 
experiments,  85. 

Havilland,  G.  de,  height  record, 
196,  240;  at  Farnborough, 
228. 

'Hawk,1  the,  Pilcher's  glider,  104. 

Hawker,  H.  G.,  height  record,  240; 
Atlantic  attempt,  265. 

Helicopters:  Castel's,  87;  da 
Vinci's,  19;  Berriman  on,  87; 
Forlanini's,  87;  Kimball's,  88; 
Kress's,  88;  Nadar  and  de  la 
Landelle's,  71;  Phillips,  W. 
S.,  57;  Principle  and  disad- 
vantages, 85;  Paucton's, 
39-40. 


Henderson,  General  Sir  D.,  238-9. 

Henson,  W.  S.,  and  Stringfellow, 
57;  Patent  specification,  57; 
Prospectus  of  company,  60; 
end  of  experiments,  67. 

Henson  and  Stringfellow's  engines, 
383- 

Hildebrandt,  Airships  Past  and 
Present,  317. 

Hooke,  Robert,  21,  32. 

Hot  air  balloons,  318-22. 

Hydrogen,  discovered  by  Caven- 
dish, 318;  experiments  by 
Leo  Cavallo,  318;  balloon, 
the  Charles,  320. 

Icarus,  legend  of,  5. 

Ilmarinen,   Finnish  legend,   9. 

Inca  legends,  8. 

Independent    Force,    R.A.F.,    262. 

Indian  legends,  4,  9. 

Ireland,  first  flight  in,  223. 

Italian  aircraft  war  strength,  248. 

Janinet,  Miollan  and,  dirigible,  332. 

Jeffries,  Dr,  balloon  voyage  across 
the  Channel,  326;  scientific 
observations  on  balloon  voyage, 
328. 

'June  Bug,'  Curtiss  aeroplane,  180. 

'Jupiter,'  radial  engine,  465. 

Jutland,  seaplanes  at,  254. 

Juvisy  flying  meeting,  186. 

Kalevala     (Finnish    epic),     legend 

from,  9. 

Kempt  Vee-type  aero  engine,  416. 
Kill    Devil    camp,    the    Wrights', 

153.  278. 
Kite     Balloons :       the      Parseval- 

Siegsfeld,    376;     Belgian,    377; 

in  Naval  use,  377. 
Kitty   Hawk,    the   Wrights'   camp 

at,  152-3. 
Kcenig,  winner  of  German  National 

Circuit,  1911,  230. 


517 


INDEX 


Kolb-Danvin  aero  engine,  445. 
Krebs,  Renard  and,  dirigible,  338- 
40. 

Lambert,  Comte  de,  flies  round 
Eiffel  Tower,  185,  207,  223. 

Lamplough,  two-stroke  aero- 
engine, 455. 

Lana,  Francesco,  21;  biographical 
details,  27-8;  The  Aerial  Ship, 
28-31. 

Lanark,   meeting  at,    1910,   209. 

Lanchester,  study  of  ornithopter 
flight,  85. 

Landelle,  de  la,  helicopter  project, 

71- 

Landemann's  distance  record, 
1914,  242. 

Langley,  S.  P.,  Memoir,  133;  first 
experiments,  134;  engines, 
135;  model  machines,  135; 
model  flight,  137;  construc- 
tion of  full-sized  machine,  138; 
official  report  on  trials,  140-4; 
Wrights'  reference  to,  161; 
Bleriot  copies  design,  183; 
machine  flown  by  Glenn  Curtiss, 

243- 

Latham,  Hubert,  flight  of  over  an 
hour,  1 86;  at  Rheims,  200, 
204,  223;  attempts  Channel 
crossing,  213;  height  record, 
223;  achieves  vertical  kilo- 
metre, 224. 

Laurenzo,  Bartolomeo,  317. 

La  viator  two-stroke  engine,  454. 

Lebaudy,  use  of  air  bags,  334; 
airships,  348-9,  362;  engines 
used,  390. 

Le  Blon,  Hubert,  225. 

Le  Bris,  gliding  experiments,  77. 

Lefebvre  at  Rheims,  201,  205. 

Legagneaux,  height  record,  241. 

Legends  of  flight,  3-14. 

Lenoir  engine  used  by  Haenlein, 
386. 


Le  Rhone  rotary  aero  engine,  436. 
Lilienthal,    Otto,    95-101;     studied 

by    Voisin,    181;     studied    by 

Wrights,   159;    fatal  accident, 

100. 
London-Manchester  flight,  217,  220; 

Farman  machines  used,  182. 
London-Paris,  first  non-stop  flight, 

230;    regular  service,   267. 
Looping,  262,  272,  303. 
Loraine,  Robert,  early  flights,  210. 
'Lucifer'  radial  aero  engine,   466. 
Lunardi,    first    balloon    ascent    in 

England,  323. 
L70   and   L7i,   German  dirigibles, 

374- 

Mahabarata,  legend  from,  4. 
Mail  services,   aerial,   231,  268. 
Maitland,     Brig.-Gen.,     parachute 

descent,  379. 
Manly 's    radial    engine,    139,    396, 

417. 
Marey,   La  Machine  Animate,   22, 

84,  150. 
Martinsyde,        Atlantic        crossing 

machine,  266;  monoplane,  291. 
Maxim,  Sir  Hiram,  aeroplane,  128. 

account  of  experiments,    129- 

131;    engines  and  boilers,  384- 

8. 

'Mayfly'  airship,  362. 
Meerwein's  glider,  41-42;    practical 

conclusions,  42. 
Meetings,     flying :      Berlin,     209; 

Blackpool,  195;  Boulogne,  178, 

206;  Bournemouth,  198,  207-8; 

Brescia,  206;    Doncaster,  206; 

Juvisy,     1 86;      Lanark,     209; 

Rheims,  199-206;    Tours,  225; 

decay  of,  209. 
Mercedes-Daimler   vertical   engine, 

402;  6-cylinder  type,  459-465. 
Metal  aeroplane  construction,  311. 
Mensier,  General,  report  on  Ader's 

'Avion,'  469. 


518 


INDEX 


Miollan  and  Janinet  dirigible,  332. 
Mousnier,  General,  333;    death  of, 

334- 

Model  machines,  Langley's,  135. 

Monge,  Marey,  experiment  with 
Lana's  'aerial  ship/  32. 

Mongolfiers,  the,  first  balloons, 
42,  316;  Joseph,  later  con- 
structions, 320-21;  State 
pension  granted,  321;  on 
dirigible  propulsion,  331. 

Monoplanes  :  Ader's  'Avion/  123; 
Ader's  'Eole/  122;  Antoin- 
ette, 290;  Audemars's  'Dem- 
oiselle/ 209;  Bleriot's,  183; 
Bleriot's  cross-channel,  212-6, 
289;  Deperdussin,  294,  301-2; 
Dunne,  229;  Ferguson's,  223; 
first  German,  the  'Grade/  207; 
Goupil's,  91;  Handley-Page, 
229;  Henson  and  String- 
fellow's,  57-59;  Martinsyde, 
291;  Morane  'Parasol/  302; 
Moy's,  90;  Paulhan-Tatin, 
295;  Penaud's  design,  89; 
Santos-Dumont's'  Demoiselle/ 
184. 

Montgomery,  gliding  experiments, 
115-120;  death,  120. 

Moore-Brabazon,  J.  C.  T.,  197,  223. 

Mort,  G.  F.,  two-stroke  engine,  456. 

Moy,  Thomas,  90. 

Mullar,  John,  legend  of,  8. 

Nadar's  Helicopter,  71;  work  on 
Aviation,  71;  balloon  experi- 
ments, 72. 

Napier  aero  engine,  Vee  type,  412, 

4M-I5. 

Nesteroof,  looping,  303. 
New  Engine  Co.,  two-stroke  engine, 

456. 

Nieuport  aero  engine,  445. 
'Nulli   Secundus'   airship,    360. 
N.C-4's  Atlantic  crossing,  265. 
N.S.  type  airships,  364. 


O'Gorman,      Colonel,      at      Farn- 

borough,  226. 
Oliver  of  Malmesbury,  n. 
Ornithopter  experiments  :  Brearey, 

F.  W.,   83;    Bleriot,    183;    de 

Villeneuve,  83-4;   Hooke,  32-3; 

Meerwein,    41-2;     studied    by 

Wright,  85. 

Palons  and  Beuse  aero  engine,  445. 

Paprier,   London-Paris  flight,   230. 

Parachutes,  da  Vinci's,  19,  378; 
Veranzio's,  19-20;  'Guardian 
Angel/  379;  modern,  379; 
Blanchard's  descents,  378; 
Cocking's  descents,  378;  Mon- 
golfier's  descents,  378;  Robert- 
son's descents,  378;  Maitland's 
descents,  378;  rate  of  fall,  378. 

Parseval   airship   design,    351. 

Parseval-Siegsfeld  kite-balloon,  377. 

Patents  specification,  the  Wrights', 

479- 

Paucton  on  Helicopter  flight,  39-40. 

Paulhan  :  using  Farman  biplane, 
182;  exhibition  flying  charges, 
1 86;  at  Rheims,  201;  London- 
Manchester  flight,  217-220; 
first  European  height  record, 
223;  Los  Angeles  height  record, 
224. 

Pegoud,  first  to  loop  the  loop,  262, 

303- 
Penaud,  Alphonse,  89;  death  of,  90; 

reference  to,  127. 

Perugia,  Danti's  experiment  at,  12. 
Peruvian  legends  of  flight,  8. 
Phillips,     Horatio,     investigations, 

91;  flying  machine,  the,  188-9; 

W.  H.,  helicopter,  57. 
Pilcher,  Percy  S.,  work  of,   101-6; 

death,  106. 
Pilots  in  1911,  list  of  certificates, 

228. 
Plane    surfaces,    Horatio    Phillips' 

investigations,  91. 


519 


INDEX 


Platz,  ascent  in  Schwartz  airship, 

340. 

Pocock's  kite  carriage,  56. 
Proclamation  on  balloon   ascents, 

502. 

Puy  de  Dome  flight,  228. 
Pyrenees,  first  crossed  by  Tabuteau, 

227. 

Radial  engines,  see  engines. 
Reconnaissance,  War,  253. 
Records,     184-6,     193-196-197-199- 

201,  221-232,  240-2,  269,  272, 

306. 
Regiomontanous     (John     Muller), 

legend  of,  8. 

Renard  and  Krebs'  dirigible,  338-40. 
Renault  aero  engines,  415. 
Renaux,  Puy  de  Dome  flight,  228; 

duration  record,  230. 
R.E.  type,  the,  304-5. 
R.E.P.    biplane,    construction    of, 

182. 
Rheims  flying  week  of  1909,  199- 

206,  225. 
Richthofen's     'travelling     circus,' 

251. 

Rigiddirigibles  (see  airships), 365-71. 
Robert,  discovery  of  rubber  proof- 
ing,    319;      observations     on 

balloons,  327. 

Roberts  two-stroke  engine,  457. 
Robertson's  parachute  descent,  378. 
Roe,  A.  V.,  constructs  first  triplane, 

192;  summary  of  construction, 

195- 
Rogers,  C.  P.,  flying  across  America, 

231. 
Rolls,   C.   S.,   cross-Channel  flight, 

198,  216,  225;    fatal  accident, 

198,  208. 

Rolls-Royce  engines,    266,   412-14. 
Rome-Tokio  flight,  272. 
Ross-Smith's  Australian  flight,  270. 
Rotary  engines  (see  engines). 
Rougier,  at  Juvisy,  186. 


Royal    Aeronautical    Society,    72; 

Annual  reports,  76. 
Royal  Aircraft  Factory,  236. 
Royal    Air     Force     formed,     258; 

strength  of,  258. 
Royal  Flying  Corps,   founding  of, 

235.  238. 
Royal  Naval  Air  Service  formed, 

238;  in  the  war  period,  255. 
Rozier,  Pilatre  de,  322;  death  of,  327. 
Rubber  proofing,  discovery  of,  319. 
Russian  air  strength  in  1914,  249. 
Ryneveld,  Cairo  to  Cape  flight,  270. 
R34's  voyage  to  America,  370. 
R8o,  British  rigid  dirigible, '371. 

Salmson  radial  engine,   422-6. 

Santos-Dumont :  airship  construc- 
tions, 342-7;  conclusions  re- 
garding dirigibles,  345-7;  first 
effective  aeroplane  flight  in 
Europe,  180,  221,  285;  designs 
'14  bis,'  1 80,  285;  designs 
'Demoiselle,'  184;  airship 
engines,  390. 

Saracen     of    Constantinople,     the, 

7.  10. 
Saussure,    observations   on   hot-air 

balloons,  323. 

Schwartz  aluminium  dirigible,  340. 
Schutte-Lanz   airships,    358. 
Scouting  by  aeroplane,    210. 
Seaplanes    at     Jutland,     254;      in 

1912-13,    295,     300;      of    the 

period,    254;     submarine    war 

spotting,  254. 
Seguin,  Laurent,  inventor  of  Gnome 

engine,  428. 
Selfridge,    Lieut.,    killed    at    Fort 

Meyer,  199,  222. 
Sikorsky  biplane,  249. 
Simon  the  Magician,  4,  10. 
Somali  campaign,  aircraft  in,  271. 
Sopwith,  T.  O.  M.,  duration  record, 

196;      distance    record,     196; 

height  record,  197. 


520 


INDEX 


Specification    of    Wright    patents, 

479- 

Spencer,  Charles,  gliding  experi- 
ments, 82. 

Stability,  inherent,  262,  292-3,  304. 

Standardising,  effects  of,   187. 

Stream-lining,  293. 

Stringfellow,  John  :  prospectus  of 
company,  60;  record  of  work, 
65-70;  engine,  67,  69-70; 
engine  and  models  at  Crystal 
Palace,  69;  death  of,  70. 

Sunbeam  aero  engine,  Vee  type, 
4x1. 

Swedenborg,  theory  of  flight,  35-6. 

Synchronisation  of  propeller  and 
machine  gun,  260. 

Tabuteau,  Maurice,  crosses  Pyre- 
nees, 227. 

Tarrant  triplane,  272. 
Taube  type  of  machine,  303. 
Thible,    Madame,    balloon    ascent, 

323- 
Tissandier,  La  Navigation  Aerienne, 

37;  dirigible  construction,  337, 

390;    flying  at  Rheims,  201. 
Tokio-Rome  flight,  272. 
Tours  meeting,  225. 
Trick  flying  of  the  war  period,  262. 
Triplane,    A.   V.    Roe's,    192,    195, 

291;  the  Tarrant,  272. 
Two-stroke     cycle     engines      (see 

engines). 

Vedrines  in  Circuit  of  Britain  race, 
220;  wins  Paris-Madrid  flight, 
230;  speed  record  at  Chicago, 
240;  winner  of  Gordon-Ben- 
nett race,  294. 

Vertical  engines  (see  engines). 

Vee  type  engines  (see  engines). 

Veranzio's  parachute,  19-20. 

Vickers-Vimy  Atlantic  aeroplane, 
266-7;  Cape-Cairo  flight,  270; 
airships,  362. 


Vinci,  Leonardo  da,  15;  Treatise 
on  Flight,  1 6-1 8;  parachute,  20, 

Voisin,  gliding  experiments,  179; 
brothers,  biplane  construction, 
1 80,  286;  machine  used  by 
Moore-Brabazon,  197. 

Walker,  Thomas,  The  Aft  of  Flying, 

48-55. 

War  Office,  British  aero  trials,  1912, 
194,  209,  232,  235-7,  296; 
first  experiments,  225;  aero- 
plane purchases,  227;  speci- 
fications, 239,  300. 

War  period,  the,  246-263,  306-311. 

War,  provision  of  aircraft  for, 
246-9. 

Wellner's  dirigible,  331. 

Wenham,  Aerial  Locomotion,  72-6. 

Wieland  the  Smith,  legend  of,  9. 

Wilcox,  James,  first  American 
balloon  ascent,  329. 

Willows's  dirigible,  359. 

Wolseley  Vee-type    engine,   405-9. 

Wright,  Orville,  accident  at  Fort 
Meyer,  199,  222;  flights  by, 

199- 

Wright  brothers,  biographical,  145- 
7;  study  of  gliding,  147,  277; 
experiments  begun,  148,  278; 
on  equilibrium,  149,  278;  on 
engine  power,  162;  on  pro- 
peller design,  169;  first  power- 
driven  flight,  170-1,  221,  282; 
description  of  1905  machine, 
175,  283;  contract  with  U.S. 
Government,  174. 

Wright,  Wilbur,  at  Le  Mans,  199. 

Young,  Dr,  experiments,  43. 

Zambeccari,  Italian  balloonist,  327. 

Zeppelin,  first  investigations,  341; 
first  constructions,  352;  record 
of  constructions,  352-8;  service 
commercial,  372. 


521 


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